Barnes, Jo

Fenech, Cecilia

Forber, Ian

Lymer, James

Salter, Leo

English

UWE Bristol Research Repository

Royal Society of Chemistry—Environmental Chemistry Group—Bulletin—January 2015  7  As part of the ECG Bulletin’s twentieth anniversary edition, committee members reflect on the past and present of soil, air, and water quality management in the UK.  	Introduction 	During	 the	 20th	 and	 21st	 centuries,	 society	 became	 a	function	of	capitalist	ideologies.	As	a	consequence	of	this,	consumerism	 is	 now	 a	 dominant	 and	 ubiquitous	paradigm.		If	this	is	true,	and	since	there	is	no	altruism	or	aesthetic	 in	capitalism,	damage	to	the	environment	only	becomes	relevant	when	it	impinges	on	proϐit.		In	my	view	this	can	occur	in	two	ways,	either	as	a	collateral	effect	of	the	 proϐit	 motive	 when	 a	 damaging	 action	 reduces	proϐitability	ሺe.g.	when	a	commodity	such	as	water	or	oil	becomes	 so	 scarce/expensive	 that	 consumption	 is	reducedሻ	 or	 when	 government	 is	 provoked	 ሺe.g.	 by	popular	actionሻ	to	introduce	legislation.	In	relation	to	the	latter,	 it	 is	 noteworthy	 that	 in	 capitalist	 societies,	many	aspects	 of	 environmental	 legislation	 are	 justiϐied	economically,	 most	 often	 based	 on	 human	 health	arguments	 constructed	 around	 the	 costs	 to	 the	 state	 of	reduced	 economic	 activity	 and/or	 costs	 to	 national	health	 systems.	 Legislation	 outside	 of	 these	 two	categories	is	hard‐won.		Arguments	 about	 the	 value,	 aesthetics,	 and	 long‐term	signiϐicance	 of	 the	 environment	 that	 cannot	be	 couched	in	 terms	 of	 economic	 value	 ሺproϐitሻ	 rarely	 attract	 the	genuine	 commitment	 of	 governments.	Without	 effective	legislation	 by	 government,	 the	 preservation	 of	 the	environment	 becomes	 a	 romantic	 and	 futile	 notion.	 	 In	other	 words,	 legislation	 is	 currently	 the	 only	 tool	 at	humanity’s	 disposal	 that	 offers	 a	 route	 by	 which	 the	complexity	 and	 wonder	 of	 the	 natural	 world	 can	 be	preserved;	 the	 introduction	 and	 implementation	 of	environmental	legislation	is	vital.		I	 hope	 this	 personal	 view	 of	 the	 world	 we	 live	 in	 will	sufϐice	 to	 introduce	 three	 brief	 surveys	 of	 the	 state‐of‐play	of	environmental	legislation	with	regard	to	land,	air	and	water	in	the	UK	and	EC;	readers	may	draw	their	own	conclusions	 about	 its	 effectiveness	 and	 whether	 it	 will	sufϐice.			 Leo Salter Contaminated land management 	In	the	UK,	throughout	 late	industrial	and	post‐industrial	society,	 legislation	 began	 to	 reϐlect	 the	 need	 to	 protect	human	 health	 and	 the	 environment	 from	 pollution	leading	 to	 a	 landmark	 regulation	 	 with	 the	 1990	Environmental	 Protection	 Act	 ሺEPAሻ.	 New	 policy	initiatives	and	various	pieces	of	speciϐic	legislation	were	introduced	following	enactment	of	the	EPA.		Prior	 to	 the	 EPA,	 and	 with	 respect	 to	 soils	 and	contaminated	 land,	 the	 Inter‐Departmental	 Committee	for	 the	 Development	 of	 Contaminated	 Land	 ሺICRCL,	formed	 in	 1976ሻ	 provided	 various	 Guidance	 Notes	 on	land	 contamination.	 These	 included	 ሺaሻ	 advice	 to	 Local	Authorities	against	development	on	landϐill	 sites,	 ሺbሻ	 guidance	 on	asbestos	 ሺ1990ሻ	 ሺcሻ	 trigger	 and	intervention	 values	 for	 soil	contaminants	 ሺ1987ሻ	 ሺto	 compare	with	 site	 concentrationsሻ	as	part	of	an	emerging,	risk‐based	assessment	practice	 that	 had	 developed	 over	the	previous	twenty	years.		Following	 explosions	 in	 buildings	 on	 sites	 during	 the	1980s,	where	ground	gas	accumulation	was	identiϐied	as	the	 source,	 technical	 guidance	 was	 introduced.	Establishing	ground	gas	conditions	over	the	past	twenty	years	 has	 become	 a	 common	 feature	 of	 land	redevelopment.		Today	 in	 the	 UK,	 land	 contaminated	 with	 pollutants	 is	dealt	with	by	two	main	approaches:		1.	 Part	 IIሺaሻ	 of	 the	 1990	 EPA	 ሺas	 amendedሻ	 addresses	contamination	present	on	existing	land	uses;	and	2.	 The	 Local	 Authority	 Planning	 System,	 which	addresses	contamination	via	land	redevelopment.	Part	 2A	of	 the	 1990	EPA	 ሺas	 amendedሻ	was	 introduced	under	 Section	 57	 of	 the	 Environment	 Act	 1995,	 and	 in	this,	the	statutory	deϐinition	of	contaminated	land	is	“any	land	which	appears	to	the	local	authority	in	whose	area	it	is	 situated	 to	 be	 in	 such	 a	 condition,	 by	 reason	 of	Anniversary article Environmental chemistry: a twenty year perspective  Leo Salter (Cornwall), James Lymer (Wardell Armstrong), Jo Barnes (University of the West of England), Cecilia Fenech (Cranfield University) and Ian Forber (ALcontrol Laboratories)  Royal Society of Chemistry—Environmental Chemistry Group—Bulletin—January 2015  8 substances	in,	on	or	under	the	land,	that—	ሺaሻ	 signiϐicant	 harm	 is	 being	 caused	 or	 there	 is	 a	signiϐicant	possibility	of	such	harm	being	caused;	or		ሺbሻ	 signiϐicant	 pollution	 of	 controlled	 waters	 is	 being	caused,	 or	 there	 is	 a	 signiϐicant	 possibility	 of	 such	pollution	being	caused”.		Through	 the	 1990s,	 the	 common	 approach	 to	 assessing	the	 human	 health	 risks	 from	 land	 contamination		involved	 a	 simplistic	 approach	 of	 testing	 soil	 for	 ICRCL	listed	 contaminants	 and	 comparing	 soil	 concentrations	with	 ICRCL	 trigger	 values	 ሺ1987ሻ.	 	 Some	 practitioners	also	 derived	 in‐house	 values	 or	 adopted	 international	values	 such	 as	 Dutch‐	 or	 USA‐derived	 assessment	criteria,	 but	 these	 values	 were	 not	 necessarily	 directly	applicable	 in	 the	 UK.	 	 The	 ICRCL	 trigger	 values	 ሺ1987ሻ	were	withdrawn	in	2002	when	the	Environment	Agency	ሺEAሻ	 began	 the	 publication	 of	 Soil	 Guideline	 Values	ሺSGVsሻ.	 These	 are	 a	 key	 tool	 for	 generic	 assessment	 of	health	risks	from	land	contamination.	SGVs	were	derived	using	 an	 exposure	 model	 called	 CLEA.	 SGVs	 now	 form	part	 of	 a	 more	 comprehensive	 risk	 assessment	framework,	 along	 with	 largely	 industry	 derived	assessment	 criteria	 ሺpublished	 since	 2002ሻ	 for	 soil	contaminants.	 Although	 signiϐicant	 progress	 has	 been	made	 in	 contaminated	 land	 risk	 assessment	 since	 the	withdrawal	of	ICRCL	trigger	values,	with	the	low	number	of	SGVs	produced	and	a	current	lull	in	 the	EA	backed	SGV	programme,	practitioners	 are	 reliant	 on	generating	 their	 own	 assessment	criteria	 and/or	 purchasing	 values	derived	 by	 other	 organisations.	The	 maintenance	 of	 a	 generally	accepted	 risk	 assessment	 dataset	for	 deriving	 generic	 assessment	criteria	 is	 also	 a	 problem.	Toxicity	data	 and	 physiochemical	 and	exposure	 parameters	 can	 be	revised	 over	 time,	 and	 these	changes	 will	 affect	 generic	 health	 risk	 assessments	 of	land	contamination.		Criteria	 used	 to	 assess	 surface	 water	 and	 groundwater	contaminants	 are	 usually	 adopted	 from	 drinking	 water	standards	or	Environmental	Quality	Standards	for	inland	and	 coastal	waters.	Although	many	 contaminants	 found	in	 groundwater	 and	 surface	water	 have	 an	 appropriate	water		 quality	 standard,	 this	 dataset	 could	 be	 enlarged.			Many	 common	 contaminants,	 e.g.	 total	 petroleum	hydrocarbons,	do	not	have	a	UK	standard.					Today,	 the	 contaminated	 land	 risk	 assessment	framework,	 which	 has	 developed	 over	 several	 decades,	helps	to	protect	human	health	and	the	environment	from	soil	and	groundwater	contamination.	 	There	is	scope	for	improvement,	 but	 it	 can	 be	 argued	 that	 practitioners	today	conduct	a	far	more	comprehensive	risk	assessment	of	 soil	 and	 groundwater	 contamination	 than	 twenty	years	ago.			 James Lymer	 Air quality management  1995	was	 a	 pivotal	 year	 for	 air	 quality	management	 in	the	UK,	marking	a	transition	from	source‐based	to	effects‐based	standards	 for	managing	ambient	air	quality.	Part	IV	 of	 the	 Environment	 Act	 1995	 set	 out	 the	 new	legislative	 requirements	 for	 the	 Secretary	 of	 State,	 the	Environment	Agency	and	 local	 authorities	 in	 relation	 to	Local	Air	Quality	Management	ሺLAQMሻ.	Shortly	after,	the	ϐirst	 National	 Air	 Quality	 Strategy	 ሺNAQSሻ,	 published	 in	March	 1997,	 established	 health‐based	 standards	 for	eight	 air	 pollutants	 ሾbenzene,	 1,3‐butadiene,	 carbon	monoxide,	 lead,	 nitrogen	 dioxide,	 ozone,	 PM10	ሺparticulate	matter	with	an	aerodynamic	diameter	of	10	μm	or	 lessሻ	 and	 sulphur	 dioxideሿ	 based	 on	 advice	 from	the	 Expert	 Panel	 on	 Air	 Quality	 Standards	 ሺEPAQSሻ.	These	standards	mirrored	and	were	amended	by	EU	air	quality	 legislation	 in	 the	 form	 of	Council	Directive	96/62/EC	and	its	subsequent	 daughter	 directives,	later	 consolidated	 into	 Directive	2008/50/EC,	 to	 which	 Member	States	were	required	to	adhere.		Whereas	 industry	 and	 agriculture	still	make	a	signiϐicant	contribution	to	 local	air	pollution	 in	continental	Europe,	 in	 the	UK	 the	main	 source	is	 road	 trafϐic.	 Over	 the	 past	twenty	 years,	 the	 greatest	emissions	 reductions	have	been	for	lead,	sulphur	dioxide	and	benzene,	achieved	through	fuel	quality	standards	imposed	by	the	EU,	which	resulted	in	 these	 pollutants	 being	 virtually	 eliminated	 from	vehicle	emissions	by	2001.	Possibly	 the	most	 important	factor	 in	 reductions	 of	 nitrogen	 dioxide	 and	 PM10	 has	been	 the	 adoption	 of	 European	 vehicle	 emission	standards	ሺEuro	standardsሻ.	Between	1990	and	2011,	UK	NOx	emissions	reportedly	fell	by	64%,	largely	as	a	result	of	 new	 fuel	 and	 engine	 technologies.	 However,	 recent	evidence	 suggests	 that	 those	 NOx	 estimates	 may	 have	been	 overstated	 by	 as	 much	 as	 25%.	 In	 the	 past	 ten	years,	actual	NOx	and	primary	NO2	emissions	 from	Euro	standard	 vehicle	 classes	 have	 not	 fallen	 by	 as	much	 as	test‐track	 trials	 predicted.	 In	 addition,	 the	 greatest	Air pollution. Credit : Cornfield/Shutterstock  Royal Society of Chemistry—Environmental Chemistry Group—Bulletin—January 2009  9  l Society of Chemistry—Environmental Chemistry Group—B lletin—January 2015   decreases	 in	 nitrogen	 dioxide	 expected	 with	 the	 latter	Euro	standards	have	been	confounded	by	an	increase	in	the	 proportion	 of	 primary	 NO2	 from	 diesel	 vehicles,	effectively	 caused	 by	 the	 implementation	 of	 these	technologies	 and	 by	 the	 climate	 change	 policy	 tax	incentives	that	have	ultimately	led	to	the	large	growth	in	diesel	vehicles	in	the	UK.		At	the	same	time,	epidemiological	studies	have	begun	to	reveal	 the	breadth	and	severity	of	 the	health	 impacts	of	air	 pollution	 beyond	 previously	 recognised	 respiratory	and	 cardiovascular	 effects.	 In	 October	 2013,	 the	World	Health	 Organization’s	 ሺWHOሻ	 International	 Agency	 for	Research	on	Cancer	ሺIARCሻ	Working	Group	unanimously	classiϐied	 outdoor	 air	 pollution	 as	 carcinogenic	 to	humans,	 and	 in	 2014,	 a	 large	 scale	 cohort	 study	 in	Europe	 ሺESCAPEሻ	 identiϐied	 a	 broad	 range	 of	 air	pollution	health	effects.	It	has	been	estimated	that	in	the	UK,	 anthropogenic	 air	 pollution	 accounts	 for	 nearly	29,000	 deaths	 annually	 ሺrange	 4,700	 to	 51,000	 deathsሻ	and	 may	 reduce	 birth‐cohort	 life	 expectancy	 by	 an	average	of	1	to	12	months,	presenting	a	greater	mortality	burden	 than	 passive	 smoking	 or	 road	 trafϐic	 accidents.	These	estimates	are	based	on	long‐term	exposure	to	ϐine	particles	ሺparticulate	matter	with	aerodynamic	diameter	below	2.5	μm,	PM2.5ሻ	and	therefore	likely	underestimate	the	 cumulative	 impact	 of	 other	 pollutants	 ሺincluding	NO2ሻ	 and	 of	 short‐term	 acute	 exposure.	 While	 PM2.5	 is	regulated	 for	Member	 States	 under	 Directive	 2008/50/EC,	 it	 is	 not	 currently	 a	 requirement	 for	 UK	 local	authorities	under	LAQM.		Although	 most	 regulatory	goals	for	pollutants	regulated	under	 national	 and	 EU	legislation	 have	 been	achieved	 in	 the	 UK	 over	 the	last	 twenty	years,	 the	health‐based	 standards	 set	 for	 NO2	are	 still	 widely	 exceeded	 in	the	UK,	leading	the	European	Commission	 to	 launch	 legal	proceedings	 against	 the	 UK	Government,	 on	 20th	February	2014,	for	“its	failure	to	 cut	 excessive	 levels	 of	nitrogen	 dioxide”.	 With	 the	immediate	‘low	hanging	fruit’	of	 technological	 solutions	already	picked	and	rotted,	in	order	to	improve	air	quality	and	 avoid	 EC	 ϐines,	 the	 UK	 government	must	 now	 face	some	 politically	 unpalatable	 alternatives,	 including	reducing	 road	 trafϐic	 dependence	 as	 part	 of	 a	 more	holistic,	sustainable	approach	to	air	quality	management.		 		 Jo Barnes Water quality management  In	 the	UK	and	worldwide,	 the	 ϐield	of	water	science	has	seen	substantial	changes	over	the	past	ca.	 twenty	years.	These	changes	are	largely	due	to	increasing	awareness	of	water	pollution	and	demands	 for	water	protection.	This	section	will	focus	on	three	aspects	related	to	the	ϐield	of	water	 environmental	 chemistry	 that	 have	 resulted	 in	some	 of	 the	 biggest	 changes	 in	 the	 ϐield:	 legislation,	water	 monitoring	 methodology,	 and	 emerging	contaminants.		In	 the	 past	 twenty	 years	 or	 so,	 changes	 to	 water	regulations	within	the	UK	have	been	largely	driven	by	EU	legislation.	 These	 include	 the	 adoption	 of	 the	 Urban	Waste	 Water	 Treatment	 Directive	 ሺ1991ሻ,	 the	 Nitrates	Directive	 ሺ1991ሻ,	 the	 Directive	 for	 Integrated	 Pollution	and	 Prevention	 Control	 ሺIPPCሻ	 ሺ1996ሻ,	 the	 Drinking	Water	 Directive	 ሺ1998ሻ,	 the	 Groundwater	 Directive	ሺ2006ሻ,	 and	 the	 Marine	 Strategy	 Framework	 Directive	ሺ2008ሻ.			However,	 it	 is	without	 doubt	 that	 the	main	 inϐluence	 in	European	water	policy	has	been	 the	 introduction	of	 the	Water	Framework	Directive	ሺWFDሻ	in	October	2000	and	its	transposition	into	UK	national	law	through	a	series	of	regulations	 in	2003.	The	WFD	encompasses	most	of	 the	directives	 mentioned	 above.	 Unlike	 traditional	 limit	value	 approaches	 to	water	 pollution,	 the	WFD	does	not	set	 speciϐic	 environmental	 quality	 standards	 and	 target	limits.	 Rather,	 the	 directive	 focuses	 on	 means	 of	achieving	a	‘good	status’	for	all	water	bodies	in	terms	of	ecological	 and	 chemical	considerations,	 without	specifying	 target	 values.	Additionally,	 it	 introduced	the	 concept	 of	 water	 body	management	 on	 the	 basis	 of	river	 basins,	 some	 of	 which	pass	 through	 several	administrative	 and	 political	borders.			The	ϐield	of	water	monitoring	has	 been	 driven	 not	 only	 by	the	 implementation	 of	 these	regulations,	 but	 also	 by	substantial	 technological	improvements	 in	 water	 sampling	 and	 analysis.	 Water	sampling	has	seen	a	shift	toward	production	control	and	pollution	 prevention	 through	 trend	 monitoring	 ሺas	 per	the	IPPC	directiveሻ	and	away	from	reactionary	sampling	following	a	pollution	event	or	other	cause	for	concern.	An	additional	key	shift	has	been	toward	automated	sampling	and	 online	 monitoring	 of	 water	 bodies,	 arising	 from	Water pollution. Credit: Armograph/Shutterstock  Royal Society of Chemistry—Environmental Chemistry Group—Bulletin—January 2015  10 advances	 in	 such	 varied	 ϐields	 as	 microϐluidics,	electronics	miniaturisation	and	wireless	technologies.	In	addition	to	these	technological	advances,	in	recent	years,	the	 ϐield	 of	 water	 monitoring	 has	 also	 seen	 some	interesting	shifts	away	from	technological	advances	and	into	 citizen	 science	 initiatives;	 for	 example,	 the	 OPAl	water	survey	asks	recreational	anglers	to	report	whether	they	have	seen	a	speciϐic	type	of	ϐish.			There	 has	 also	 been	 an	 increasing	 focus	 on	 ‘emerging	contaminants’,	 such	 as	 persistent	 organic	 pollutants	ሺPOPsሻ,	which	were	not	on	the	agenda	twenty	years	ago.	This	 is	 evidenced,	 for	 example,	 by	 the	 adoption	 of	 the	Stockholm	 Convention	 on	 POPs	 in	 2001	 ሺwith	implementation	in	the	UK	initiated	in	2007ሻ	and	the	UK	Water	 Industry	 Research	 ሺUKWIRሻ	 Chemicals	Investigation	Programme	in	2009;	the	latter	investigates	trace	 contaminant	 concentrations	 in	 UK	 wastewater	treatment	works	efϐluents	and	is	now	in	its	second	phase.	In	addition	to	regulatory	requirements,	advances	in	mass	spectrometric	 techniques,	 particularly	 tandem	 mass	spectrometric	 and	 high	 resolution	 techniques,	 have	undoubtedly	 been	 one	 of	 the	 main	 factors	 that	 have	allowed	this	shift	to	occur.			 Cecilia Fenech and Ian Forber 	Further reading 	Introduction 	Some	of	 these	 issues	are	discussed	 in	a	 compendium	of	brief	comment	articles	in	Nature,	515,	27‐31	ሺ2014ሻ	and	pp.	 32‐33	 ሺibidሻ	 ሺE.	 B.	 Barber,	 Account	 for	 the	depreciation	 of	 natural	 capitalሻ.	 For	 evocative	descriptions	 of	 the	 same	 phenomena,	 I	 suggest	 Wolf	Totem	 by	 Jiang	 Rong	 ሺtranslated	 by	 Howard	 Goldblatt,	Penguin	 Press,	 2008ሻ.	 Engineers	 of	 the	 Soul	 by	 Frank	Westerman	 ሺtranslated	 by	 Sam	 Garrett,	 Vintage	 Books,	2010ሻ	discusses	the	impact	of	canal	building	in	the	1950s	on	 Turkmenistan	 and	 Kazakhstan.	 I	 also	 recommend	Rowing	 the	 Eternal	 Sea:	 the	 story	 of	 a	 Minamata	ϐisherman	by	Oiwa	Keibo	ሺnarrated	by	Ogata	Masato	and	translated	 by	 Karen	 Colligan‐Taylor,	 Rowman	 and	Littleϐield	Inc,	2001ሻ.		Contaminated land  An	overview	of	regulations	regarding	contaminated	Land	may	 be	 found	 at	 www.york.gov.uk/info/200364/contaminated_land/490/contaminated_land.	 Technical	guidance	 is	 available	 at	 www.gov.uk/government/collections/land‐contamination‐technical‐guidance.	 For	information	on	 the	USA	perspective	 see	 	www.epa.gov/superfund/about.htm.	For	 information	 on	 the	 Australian	 perspective	 see	www.public.health.wa.gov.au/3/1144/2/contaminated_sites.pm.	 The	 book	 Assessment	 and	Reclamation	 of	 Contaminated	 Land	 ሺedited	 by	 R.	 M.	Harrison,	R.	E.	Hester	and	published	by	the	RSC	in	2001ሻ	covers	 topics	 from	 the	 origins	 and	 extent	 of	contaminated	land	problems,	including	effects	on	human	health,	 through	 investigative	 measures,	 to	 speciϐic	techniques	of	remediation.		Air quality  Barnes,	J.	ሺ2014ሻ	A	critical	evaluation	of	local	air	quality	management	 and	 its	 contribution	 to	 meeting	 the	 EU	annual	 mean	 nitrogen	 dioxide	 limit	 value.	 PhD,	University	of	the	West	of	England.			R.	 Beelen	 et	 al.,	 Effects	 of	 long‐term	 exposure	 to	 air	pollution	 on	 natural‐cause	 mortality:	 an	 analysis	 of	 22	European	 cohorts	 within	 the	 multicentre	 ESCAPE	project.		Lancet	,	383,	785	ሺ2013ሻ.		S.	 D.	 Beevers,	 E.	 Westmoreland,	 M.	 C.	 de	 Jong,	 M.	 L.	Williams,	 D.	 C.	 Carslaw,	 D.C.	 ሺ2012ሻ	 Trends	 in	 NOx	 and	NO2	 emissions	 from	 road	 trafϐic	 in	 Great	 Britain,	Atmospheric	Environment	,	54,	107	ሺ2012ሻ.			COMEAP	 ሺ2010ሻ	 The	 Mortality	 Effects	 of	 Long‐Term	Exposure	 to	 Particulate	 Air	 Pollution	 in	 the	 United	Kingdom.	 Health	 Protection	 Agency.	 Environment	 Act	1995.	Chapter	25.	ሺ1995ሻ	London:	The	Stationery	Ofϐice.			J.	W.	S.	Longhurst,	J.	G.	Irwin,	T.	J.	Chatterton,	E.	T.	Hayes,	N.	S.	Leksmono,	J.	K.	Symons,	The	development	of	effects‐based	 air	 quality	 management	 regimes,	 Atmospheric	Environment	,	43,	64	ሺ2009ሻ.		Water quality  Water	Framework	Directive	Interactive	Maps	for	Europe:	http://www.eea.europa.eu/themes/water/interactive/by‐category/wfd		Rapid	 Measurement	 Tools:	 ESKTN	 Business	 Case,	https://connect.innovateuk.org/documents/2832130/	6075062/Rapid൅Measurement൅Tools.pdf/e0646f10‐ef12‐42eb‐9477‐8eae26341665		European	waters	–	current	status	and	future	challenges	–	a	 synthesis,	 EEA	 Report	 No	 9/2012,	 http://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/european‐waters‐synthesis‐2012    

Environmental chemistry: A twenty year perspective: Air quality management

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Environmental chemistry: A twenty year perspective: Air quality management

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