It is shown that the excellent Murchison Radio-astronomy Observatory site
allows the Murchison Widefield Array to employ a simple RFI blanking scheme and
still calibrate visibilities and form images in the FM radio band. The
techniques described are running autonomously in our calibration and imaging
software, which is currently being used to process an FM-band survey of the
entire southern sky.Comment: Accepted for publication in Proceedings of Science [PoS(RFI2010)016].
  6 pages and 3 figures. Presented at RFI2010, the Third Workshop on RFI
  Mitigation in Radio Astronomy, 29-31 March 2010, Groningen, The Netherland

Arcus, W.

Benkevitch, L.

Bernardi, Gianni

Bowman, J. D.

Briggs, F. H.

Bunton, J. D.

Burns, S.

Cappallo, R. J.

Clark, Michael A.

Corey, B. E.

Dal, Kevin

de Oliveira-Costa, A.

Derome, M. F.

Desouza, L.

Doeleman, S. S.

Edgar, Richard G.

Emrich, D.

Gleadow, Stewart J.

Glossop, M.

Goeke, R.

Greenhill, Lincoln J.

Hazelton, B.

Herne, D. E.

Hewitt, J. N.

Kamini, P. A.

Kaplan, D. L.

Kasper, J. C.

Kincaid, B. B.

Kocz, J.

Kowald, E.

Kratzenberg, E.

Krishna, M. R. Gopala

Kumar, D.

Lonsdale, C. J.

Lynch, M. J.

Madhavi, S.

Matejek, M.

McWhirter, S. R.

Mitchell, Daniel A.

Morales, M. F.

Morgan, E.

Oberoi, D.

Ord, Stephen M.

Pathikulangara, J.

Pfister, Hanspeter

Prabu, T.

Rogers, A.

Salah, J. E.

Sault, R. J.

Shankar, N. Udaya

Srivani, K. S.

Stevens, J.

Tingay, S. J.

Vaccarella, A.

Waterson, M.

Wayth, Randall B.

Webster, R. L.

Whitney, A. R.

Williams, A.

Williams, C.

English

arXiv

Clarke, Michael A.

Dale, Kevin

Arcus, Wayne

Briggs, F.H.

Bowman, J.D.

Bunton, J.D.

Cappallo, R.J.

Corey, B.E.

Doeleman, S.S.

Derome, M.F.

Emrich, David

Glossop, Mark

Gopala Krishna, M.R.

Herne, David

Hewitt, J.N.

Kamini, P.A.

Kaplan, D.L.

Kasper, J.C.

Kincaid, B.B.

Lonsdale, C.J.

Lynch, M.J.

McWhirter, S.R.

Morales, M.F.

Salah, J.E.

Sault, R.J.

Udaya Shankar, N.

Srivani, K.S.

Tingay, Steven

Waterson, Mark

Webster, R.L.

Whitney, A.R.

espace@Curtin

© 2010 Proceedings of Science. The author(s) and right holder(s) of such contributions grant(s) to all users a free, irrevocable, worldwide, right of access to, and a license to copy, use, distribute, transmit and display the work publicly and to make and distribute derivative works, in any digital medium for any responsible purpose, subject to proper attribution of authorship (community standards, will continue to provide the mechanism for enforcement of proper attribution and responsible use of the published work, as they do now), as well as the right to make small numbers of printed copies for their personal use.  PoS(RFI2010)016The Murchison Widefield ArrayDaniel A. Mitchell∗†, Lincoln J. Greenhill, Stephen M. Ord and Gianni BernardiHarvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, e-mail: dmitchell@cfa.harvard.eduRandall B. WaythCurtin University of TechnologyRichard G. Edgar, Michael A. Clark, Kevin Dale and Hanspeter PfisterHarvard UniversityStewart J. GleadowUniversity of MelbourneW. Arcus, F.H. Briggs, L. Benkevitch, J.D. Bowman, J.D. Bunton, S. Burns,R.J. Cappallo, B.E. Corey, A. de Oliveira-Costa, L. Desouza, S.S. Doeleman,M.F. Derome, D. Emrich, M. Glossop, R. Goeke , M.R. Gopala Krishna, B. Hazelton,D.E. Herne, J.N. Hewitt, P.A. Kamini, D.L. Kaplan, J.C. Kasper, B.B. Kincaid, J. Kocz,E. Kowald, E. Kratzenberg, D. Kumar, C.J. Lonsdale, M.J. Lynch, S. Madhavi,M. Matejek, S.R. McWhirter, M.F. Morales, E. Morgan, D. Oberoi, J. Pathikulangara,T. Prabu, A. Rogers, J.E. Salah, R.J. Sault, N. Udaya Shankar, K.S. Srivani,J. Stevens, S.J. Tingay, A. Vaccarella, M. Waterson, R.L. Webster, A.R. Whitney,A. Williams and C. Williamswww.mwatelescope.orgIt is shown that the excellent Murchison Radio-astronomy Observatory site allows the MurchisonWidefield Array to employ a simple RFI blanking scheme and still calibrate visibilities and formimages in the FM radio band. The techniques described are running autonomously in our cali-bration and imaging software, which is currently being used to process an FM-band survey of theentire southern sky.RFI mitigation workshop29-31 March 2010Groningen, the Netherlands∗Speaker.†This work uses data obtained from the Murchison Radio-astronomy Observatory. We acknowledge the WajarriYamatji people as the traditional owners of the Observatory site. Support came from the U.S. National Science Founda-tion (grants AST-0457585 and PHY-0835713), the Australian Research Council (grants LE0775621 and LE0882938),the U.S. Air Force Office of Scientific Research (grant FA9550-0510247), the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory,the MIT School of Science, the Raman Research Institute, the Australian National University, the iVEC Petabyte DataStore, the Initiative in Innovative Computing and NVIDIA sponsored Center for Excellence at Harvard, and the Inter-national Centre for Radio Astronomy Research, a Joint Venture of Curtin University of Technology and The Universityof Western Australia, funded by the Western Australian State government. The speaker would also like to thank theNational Astronomy and Ionosphere Center and Cornell University for travel support under grant AST-1013766.c© Copyright owned by the author(s) under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike Licence. http://pos.sissa.it/PoS(RFI2010)016The Murchison Widefield Array Daniel A. Mitchell1. IntroductionThe Murchison Widefield Array (MWA) is a Square Kilometre Array precursor facility de-signed for cutting-edge science between 80 and 300 MHz via real-time imaging. This frequencyband is rich with scientific potential, key science drivers being detection of redshifted 21 cm emis-sion from neutral Hydrogen during the Epoch of Reionization, detection of radio transients, andspace weather monitoring. However, the band can be difficult to observe in due to high levels ofRFI. To reduce the need for complicated interference mitigation strategies, a remote site has beenchosen so that RFI-free parts of the spectrum are available across the entire frequency range. Whilethe 1024-input correlator and high-throughput software backend make the MWA a state-of-the-artinstrument for advanced cancellation techniques, simple blanking methods have the advantage ofsimple statistics and are well suited to the low spectral and temporal occupancy at the site. Main-taining simple statistics is particularly important in the FM radio band, where it is anticipated thatpart of the weak neutral Hydrogen signal emitted during the Epoch of Reionization lies.In addition to the excellent site, several design features help the MWA confront other chal-lenges faced by modern and future radio facilities. For example, restricting the maximum baselineto a few kilometres reduces ionospheric distortion models to two dimensions, and real-time snap-shot imaging allows the removal of these and various wide-field distortions in the image plane.Real-time processing also enables the large visibility data rate that comes with 512 antennas. Aconsequence of real-time processing and high data rates is that RFI algorithms need to be robustand efficient. A description of one such approach follows.The Murchison Radio-astronomy ObservatoryThe Murchison Radio-astronomy Observatory (MRO) is a protected site in remote WesternAustralia that has been set aside as a park for a number of next-generation radio facilities. It consistsof a zone, with a radius of 100 to 150 km, in which radio emission is restricted. While this level ofprotection is imperative for detection of extremely weak target signals, terrestrial radio waves cantravel large distances via reflections off aircraft or meteor trails, or by occasional refractive ducting,while signals from satellites and aircraft can be in the direct line of sight.FM radio signals from communities outside the restricted zone are an example of signals thatwill at times be reflected into the MRO. However, removing a modest amount of contaminated datawill preserve this important band. A neighbouring instrument, the Experiment to Detect the GlobalEpoch of Reionization Signature (EDGES), removed all detected FM interference by filtering 3percent of their 130 MHz band for up to 15 percent of the time during a typical day, with statisticscollected over approximately 80 days [1].2. The Real-Time Calibration and Imaging SystemThe MWA will consist of 512 antenna tiles, each a 4x4 array of dual-polarised, vertical bowtiedipoles. It is currently in a final design phase, with the first 32 antennas – along with prototypebeamformers, receivers, correlator boards and computing hardware – being regularly used in anend-to-end pipeline. The primary aim of the 32-tile system is to test hardware and firmware beforethe build out of the full array, and to aid the design of real-time software systems.2PoS(RFI2010)016The Murchison Widefield Array Daniel A. MitchellWith the challenging dynamic range goal of a million to one in mind, a comprehensive, wide-field, real-time calibration and imaging system has been designed (see [2] and [3]). While thebulk of the real-time system is running routinely on simulated data using clusters with substantialgraphics-card acceleration [4], for the 32-tile array the design has been significantly simplified. Inkeeping with the series of papers that accompany [5], and if the visibilities are dominated by astrong, unresolved, calibrator source, one can write the measured coherency matrix (containing thefour polarisation terms of the visibility), after passing through antennas j and k, asV jk = J j(Sexp{−iφ jk})J†k +N jk, (2.1)where a dagger superscript denotes a conjugate transpose, φ jk is the phase shift due to differences inthe path length from the source to the two antennas, and each bold symbol in (2.1) represents a 2×2matrix; S is the coherency matrix of the calibrator signal, the Jones matrices, J j and Jk, describethe response of the antennas, and N jk contains the covariance of the polarised components of thenoise. This noise comes mainly from the receivers and from other radio sources and, in the absenceof RFI and significant secondary sources, we might expect it to have a Gaussian distribution. Thisis discussed further in section 3.With a model for the source, Sexp{−iφ jk}, and noise with an approximately Gaussian distri-bution, we can estimate the Jones matrix for each of the M antennas towards the calibrator usinga least-squares approach (any amplitude or phase errors in the source model will be absorbed intothese estimates). Following the matrix formalism suggested in [6] and described in [2], we searchfor the matrices Ĵ j that minimiseχ2 =M∑j=1M∑k,k 6= jσ−2jk∥∥∥V jk exp{+iφ jk}− Ĵ j SĴ†k∥∥∥2F , (2.2)where, for arbitrary matrix A, the squared Frobenius norm ‖A‖2F = Tr(AA†), and σ2jk =〈‖N jk‖2F〉.The solutions of (2.2),Ĵ j =(M∑k,k 6= jσ−2jk(V jk exp{+iφ jk})Ĵk S†)(M∑k,k 6= jσ−2jk SĴ†k Ĵk S†)−1, (2.3)can be estimated from an initial set of Jones matrices and iterated until they converge to an optimalset, which can then be tracked.The MWA is a snapshot instrument that uses (2.1) and (2.3) to produce calibrated images everyeight seconds for each frequency channel and polarisation.1 The images are regridded in real timeto remove ionospheric and wide-field distortions, then integrated for several minutes. Eventually(2.3) will be updated for many calibrators, to build up direction-dependent gain models, but for the32-tile array it is assumed that the shape of the primary beam response of each antenna is known,so that the models can be fixed by a single calibrator. It is also assumed that the primary beamshapes are the same for each antenna, so that the fixed beams are equal. These issues are describedin more detail in [7], where the real-time system was applied to the 32-tile array to track fields andintegrate for many hours over much of the band from 90 to 210 MHz.1A separate algorithm is used to estimate deviations in φ jk arising from the ionosphere.3PoS(RFI2010)016The Murchison Widefield Array Daniel A. Mitchell2.1 Flagging in the Real-Time SystemWith all of the dimensions that can be used to describe a typical observation – time, frequency,polarisation, antenna space, visibility space, image space, etc. – RFI mitigation will in general bemost effective if one can find a projection in which the interference has little or no overlap withthe signals of interest. For RFI that is contained within small segments of time and frequency,these two dimensions are obvious places to define the segmentation, and traditional techniques forblanking samples in time and frequency offer close to complete removal of the RFI at the expenseof losing a small amount of the signal of interest.The calibration and imaging system has a separate processing pipeline for each frequencychannel, and this coupled with the real-time nature of the instrument makes it well suited to timeand frequency blanking. While there are a number of places to set flags that can be used throughoutthe system to blank visibilities, it is only being done at the moment at the start of the softwaresystem. There are two detectors in use; one generates statistics for each frequency channel usingneighbouring time samples, the other generates statistics for each time step using neighbouringfrequency samples. Both detectors search for outliers using quartiles, where departures from themedian value by more than a set multiple of the interquartile range are flagged for blanking. Theinterquartile range is a robust estimator of signal variance and is relatively cheap to compute (see,for example, [8]). Each visibility has an associated non-negative inverse-variance weight, and flagsare set by making these negative. The calibration and imaging routines ignore samples that have anegative weight, and accumulated quantities that are missing samples due to flagging can simplybe down weighted.Development is underway to combine these detectors with goodness-of-fit estimates for therelations given at the start of this section. Also, since images are formed every eight seconds,various image processing tools can be run before integration, as a final check of data quality.3. 32-Tile ResultsThe accuracy of calibration relations (2.1) and (2.3) will in general be diminished by any RFIin the coherency matrices. In this section some examples will be given showing the effect of bothRFI and blanking. Data come from 21 of the 32 antennas and 6.2 MHz of bandwidth centred at98 MHz. The antenna tiles have been steered to a field with a right ascension of 21.2 hours and adeclination of -25.4 degrees, close to transit. The dominant object in the field is extragalactic radiosource PKS J2107-2526, which is 61 Jy at 80 MHz [9]. This is one of the calibration pointingsfrom a survey of the entire southern sky, which is currently under construction.In the absence of RFI, the validity of the model given in (2.1) may be verified by inspectingnoise matrices. The matrices that minimise (2.2) can be used to remove the calibrator power fromthe measured coherency matrix (known as peeling [10]), and if the assumptions hold then theremaining noise term should have a Gaussian distribution. The noise distribution after peeling isshown in figure 1. In this paper the fundamental accuracy of the calibration process is not beingconsidered, and it is adequate to note that the noise distributions qualitatively match Gaussians.In figure 2 the amplitude of Jones matrix element J j(1,1) is shown as a function of time andfrequency for one of the MWA antennas. To avoid known artifacts of the prototype receiving sys-tem, specific frequency channels were always blanked for these data, which can be seen as vertical4PoS(RFI2010)016The Murchison Widefield Array Daniel A. MitchellFigure 1: Histograms of the noise in each element of the co-herency matrices – estimated by peeling the fitted source con-tribution – along with best-fit Gaussian curves. The peelingwas done separately in each 40 kHz channel, and the statisticsgenerated after combining the whole band (after dividing outa polynomial bandpass fit). Several histograms were averagedto reduce the scatter.bands of zero gain. About halfway though the scan RFI becomes evident and increases in poweras the scan continues (the gain between FM radio frequencies is also affected by contamination ofthe bandpass fits).It is clear that blanking has significantly reduced the RFI in these data. Jones matrix errorshave been reduced by 30 dB, leaving gains that are stable in both frequency and time. During theworst of the RFI only about 12 percent, or ∼0.76 MHz of bandwidth, was blanked. The qualityof the unblanked data can be seen in figure 3, where images made with and without blanking arecompared. The calibrator is completely buried in the presence of RFI, but can be imaged and peeledbelow the noise floor with the RFI flags.Figure 2: Jones matrix element J j(1,1) is shown as a function of time and frequency for MWA antennatile 1, with dashed vertical lines indicating possible FM radio frequencies. The image on the left-hand sideshows fitted gain amplitude without RFI blanking, while the image on the right-hand side shows the gainamplitude after all detected outliers were blanked. Blanking has maintained the smooth gain structure intothe time interval that contains the strong RFI, and the entire time interval can be accurately calibrated andimaged.4. ConclusionThe MWA employs a real-time calibration and imaging system to cope with a large data rateand fast-changing calibration parameters. While the MWA is situated in the radio-quiet MurchisonRadio-astronomy Observatory, it will observe in frequency bands that are occupied by numerouscommunication signals. While these signals are transmitted from distant locations, they will, onoccasion, reflect or refract into the receivers at levels that are orders of magnitude above the noisefloor. During deep integrations the MWA real-time system will simply discard dubious data. This5PoS(RFI2010)016The Murchison Widefield Array Daniel A. MitchellFigure 3: On the left is an image of the J2107-2526 field produced by integrating 8-second snapshots overthe entire time interval without blanking. On the right is an image of the field after RFI blanking and peeling,along with contours of the unpeeled image.will require a series of data-quality tests, of which the simple median-based detector shown herewill form an integral part.References[1] A.E.E. Rogers, RFI Statistics at Boolardy, EDGES Memo, 058, 2010.[2] D.A. Mitchell, L.J. Greenhill, R.B. Wayth, R.J. Sault, C.J. Lonsdale, R.J. Cappallo, M.F. Morales, andS.M. Ord, Real-Time Calibration of the Murchison Widefield Array, IEEE Journal of Selected Topicsin Signal Processing, 2 (5), 707–717, 2008, [astro-ph/0807.1912].[3] C.J. Lonsdale, et al., The Murchison Widefield Array: Design Overview, Proceedings of the IEEE, 97(8), 1497–1506, 2009, [astro-ph/0903.1828].[4] S.M. Ord, L.J. Greenhill, R.B. Wayth, D.A. Mitchell, K. Dale, H. Pfister, and R.G. Edgar, GraphicsProcessing Units for Data Processing in the Murchison Wide-field Array, ASP Conference Series,411, 127, 2009. [arXiv:0902.0915].[5] J.P. Hamaker, J.D. Bregman, and R.J. Sault, Understanding radio polarimetry. I. Mathematicalfoundations, Astron. Astrophys. Suppl. Ser., 117, 137–147, 1996.[6] J.P. Hamaker, Understanding radio polarimetry. IV. The full-coherency analogue of scalarself-calibration: Self-alignment, dynamic range and polarimetric fidelity, Astron. Astrophys. Suppl.Ser., 143, 515–543, 2000.[7] S.M. Ord, et al., Interferometric imaging with the 32 element Murchison Wide-field Array. Acceptedfor publication in Publ. Astro. Soc. Pac., 2010. [arXiv:1010.1733].[8] P.A. Fridman, Statistically Stable Estimates of Variance in Radio-Astronomy Observations as Toolsfor Radio-Frequency Interference Mitigation, The Astronomical Journal, 135 (5), 1810–1824, 2008.[9] A.E. Wright and R. Otrupcek, (Eds), Parkes Catalogue, Australia Telescope National Facility, 1990.[10] J.E. Noordam, LOFAR Calibration Challenges, in Proc. SPIE: Groundbased Telescopes, 5489,817–825, 2004.6

The Murchison Widefield Array

The Murchison Widefield Array

Abstract

Similar works

Full text

Available Versions

espace@Curtin