Strategies for Optimizing Organic Solar Cells: Correlation between Morphology and Performance in DCV6T - C60 Heterojunctions

Abstract

This work investigates organic solar cells made of small molecules. Using the material system α,ω-bis(dicyanovinylene)-sexithiophene (DCV6T) - C60 as model, the correlation between the photovoltaic active layer morphology and performance of the solar cell is studied. The chosen method for controlling the layer morphology is applying different substrate temperatures (Tsub ) during the deposition of the layer. In neat DCV6T layers, substrate heating induces higher crystallinity as is shown by X-ray diffraction and atomic force microscopy (AFM). The absorption spectrum displays a more distinct fine structure, a redshift of the absorption peaks by up to 11 nm and a significant increase of the low energy absorption band at Tsub = 120°C compared to Tsub = 30°C. Contrary to general expectations, the hole mobility as measured in field effect transistors and with the method of charge extraction by linearly increasing voltage (CELIV) does not increase in samples with higher crystallinity. In mixed layers, investigations by AFM and UV-Vis spectroscopy reveal a stronger phase separation induced by substrate heating, leading to larger domains of DCV6T. This is indicated by an increased grain size and roughness of the topography, the increase of the DCV6T luminescence signal, and the more distinct fine structure of the DCV6T related absorption. Based on the results of the morphology analysis, the effect of different substrate temperatures on the performance of solar cells with flat and mixed DCV6T - C60 heterojunctions is investigated. In flat heterojunction solar cells, a slight increase of the photocurrent by about 10% is observed upon substrate heating, attributed to the increase of DCV6T absorption. In mixed DCV6T : C60 heterojunction solar cells, much more pronounced enhancements are achieved. By varying the substrate temperature from -7°C to 120°C, it is shown that the stronger phase separation upon substrate heating facilitates the charge transport, leading to a significant increase of the internal quantum efficiency (IQE), photocurrent, and fill factor. Consequently, the power conversion efficiency (PCE) increases from 0.5% at Tsub = -7°C to about 3.0 % at Tsub ≥ 77°C. Subsequent optimization of the DCV6T : C60 mixing ratio and the stack design of the solar cell lead to devices with PCE of 4.9±0.2 %. Using optical simulations, the IQE of these devices is studied in more detail to identify major remaining loss mechanisms. The evaluation of the absorption pattern in the wavelength range from 300 to 750 nm shows that only 77 % of the absorbed photons contribute to the exciton generation in photovoltaic active layers, while the rest is lost in passive layers. Furthermore, the IQE of the photovoltaic active layers, consisting of an intrinsic C60 layer and a mixed DCV6T : C60 layer, exhibits a lower exciton diffusion efficiency for C60 excitons compared to DCV6T excitons, attributed to exciton migration into the adjacent electron transport layer.:1 Introduction 2 Physical Properties of Organic Semiconductors 2.1 Organic Solids 2.2 Molecules with Conjugated π-Electron Systems 2.2.1 Energy Splitting in Molecular Orbital Theory 2.2.2 Extended π-Conjugated Systems 2.3 Optical Excitations in Organic Molecules 2.4 From Molecules to Solids 2.4.1 Self-Polarization in Organic Solids 2.4.2 Excitations in Organic Solids 2.4.3 Charge Carriers and Transport 3 Organic Photovoltaics 3.1 Solar Cell Physics 3.1.1 Conversion of Radiation into Chemical Energy 3.1.2 Conversion of Chemical Energy into Electrical Energy 3.1.3 Conventional pn-Junction as Photodiode 3.1.4 Simple Equivalent Circuit 3.2 Organic Solar Cells 3.2.1 Donor-Acceptor Heterojunction 3.2.2 Recombination Processes 3.2.3 Transport Layers – The p-i-n Concept 4 Experimental 4.1 Materials 4.1.1 C60 4.1.2 Transport Materials 4.2 Sample Preparation 4.3 Experimental Methods 4.3.1 X-Ray Diffraction 4.3.2 Optical Characterization 4.3.3 Topography Characterization 4.3.4 Mobility Measurements 4.3.5 Electrical Characterization of Solar Cells 4.3.6 Optical Simulation 4.3.7 Ultraviolet Photoelectron Spectroscopy 4.4 Standard Reporting Conditions and Mismatch 5 The Material System DCV6T - C60 5.1 Oligothiophenes as Donors in Heterojunctions with C60 5.2 Basic Material Properties of DCV6T 5.2.1 Optical Properties 5.2.2 Electronic Properties 5.3 Effect of Substrate Heating on Layer Morphology 5.3.1 Neat DCV6T Layers 5.3.2 Mixed DCV6T : C60 Layers 5.4 Effect of Substrate Heating on Mobility 6 DCV6T - C60 Solar Cells 6.1 Effect of Substrate Heating in DCV6T - C60 Solar Cells 6.1.1 Flat Heterojunction Solar Cells 6.1.2 Mixed Heterojunction Solar Cells 6.2 Influence of the Mixing Ratio 6.3 Optimizing the Layer Stack 6.3.1 Influence of the Transport Layer Thickness 6.3.2 Influence of the Mixed Layer Thickness 6.3.3 Discussion of Quantum Efficiency and Loss Mechanisms 6.4 Thermal Annealing 7 Conclusions and Outlook 7.1 Conclusions 7.2 Outlook Appendix Bibliography AcknowledgementsDiese Arbeit befasst sich mit organischen Solarzellen aus kleinen Molekülen. Anhand des Materialsystems α,ω-bis(Dicyanovinylen)-Sexithiophen (DCV6T) - C60 wird der Zusammenhang zwischen Morphologie der photovoltaisch aktiven Schicht und dem Leistungverhalten der Solarzellen untersucht. Zur Beeinflussung der Morphologie werden verschiedene Substrattemperaturen (Tsub ) während des Schichtwachstums der aktiven Schicht eingestellt. Beim Heizen des Substrates weisen DCV6T Einzelschichten eine erhöhte Kristallinität auf, die mittels Röntgenbeugung und Rasterkraftmikroskopie (AFM) erkennbar ist. Zudem bewirkt die Erhöhung der Substrattemperatur von 30°C auf 120°C eine ausgeprägtere Feinstrukturierung des Absorptionsspektrums, eine Rotverschiebung um bis zu 11 nm und eine Verstärkung der niederenergetischen Absorptionsbande. Entgegen den Erwartungen wird weder in Feldeffekttransistoren noch mit der Methode der Ladungsextraktion bei linear steigenden Spannungspulsen (CELIV) eine Verbesserung der Löcherbeweglichkeit in Zusammenhang mit der erhöhten Kristallinität gemessen. Mischschichten mit C60 weisen bei erhöhten Substrattemperaturen eine stärkere Phasentrennung auf, die zu größeren DCV6T Domänen innerhalb der Schicht führt. Dieser Effekt wird zum Einen durch größere Körnung und Rauigkeit der Topographie, zum Anderen durch die Erhöhung des Lumineszenzsignals von DCV6T sowie der Ausprägung der Feinstruktur im Absorptionsspektrum nachgewiesen. Ausgehend von den Ergebnissen der Morphologieuntersuchung werden die Auswirkungen von verschiedenen Substrattemperaturen auf das Leistungsverhalten von DCV6T - C60 Solarzellen mit planarem und Volumen-Heteroübergang analysiert. Solarzellen mit planarem Heteroübergang weisen eine geringe Verbesserung des Photostromes von etwa 10 % beim Heizen des Substrates auf. Diese wird durch die Erhöhung der DCV6T Absorption verursacht. In Volumen-Heteroübergängen führt die stärkere Phasentrennung bei steigender Substrattemperatur im untersuchten Temperaturbereich von -7°C bis 120°C zu einer Verbesserung des Ladungsträgertransports. Dadurch verbessern sich die interne Quanteneffizienz (IQE), der Photostrom und der Füllfaktor. Der Wirkungsgrad der Solarzellen erhöht sich von 0.5 % bei Tsub = -7°C auf 3.0 % bei Tsub ≥ 77°C. Eine weitere Optimierung des DCV6T : C60 Mischverhältnisses und des Schichtaufbaus ermöglicht Solarzellen mit Wirkungsgraden von 4.9±0.2 %. Mittels optischer Simulationen wird die IQE dieser Solarzellen näher untersucht, um verbleibende Verlustmechanismen zu identifizieren. Es ergibt sich, dass innerhalb des Wellenlängenbereichs von 300 bis 750 nm nur 77 % der absorbierten Photonen tatsächlich in den photovoltaisch aktiven Schichten absorbiert werden, während der Rest in nicht aktiven Schichten verloren geht. Des Weiteren kann nachgewiesen werden, dass C60 Exzitonen aus der aktiven Schicht, bestehend as einer intrinsischen C60 Schicht und einer DCV6T : C60 Mischschicht, durch Diffusion in die angrenzende Elektronentransportschicht verloren gehen.:1 Introduction 2 Physical Properties of Organic Semiconductors 2.1 Organic Solids 2.2 Molecules with Conjugated π-Electron Systems 2.2.1 Energy Splitting in Molecular Orbital Theory 2.2.2 Extended π-Conjugated Systems 2.3 Optical Excitations in Organic Molecules 2.4 From Molecules to Solids 2.4.1 Self-Polarization in Organic Solids 2.4.2 Excitations in Organic Solids 2.4.3 Charge Carriers and Transport 3 Organic Photovoltaics 3.1 Solar Cell Physics 3.1.1 Conversion of Radiation into Chemical Energy 3.1.2 Conversion of Chemical Energy into Electrical Energy 3.1.3 Conventional pn-Junction as Photodiode 3.1.4 Simple Equivalent Circuit 3.2 Organic Solar Cells 3.2.1 Donor-Acceptor Heterojunction 3.2.2 Recombination Processes 3.2.3 Transport Layers – The p-i-n Concept 4 Experimental 4.1 Materials 4.1.1 C60 4.1.2 Transport Materials 4.2 Sample Preparation 4.3 Experimental Methods 4.3.1 X-Ray Diffraction 4.3.2 Optical Characterization 4.3.3 Topography Characterization 4.3.4 Mobility Measurements 4.3.5 Electrical Characterization of Solar Cells 4.3.6 Optical Simulation 4.3.7 Ultraviolet Photoelectron Spectroscopy 4.4 Standard Reporting Conditions and Mismatch 5 The Material System DCV6T - C60 5.1 Oligothiophenes as Donors in Heterojunctions with C60 5.2 Basic Material Properties of DCV6T 5.2.1 Optical Properties 5.2.2 Electronic Properties 5.3 Effect of Substrate Heating on Layer Morphology 5.3.1 Neat DCV6T Layers 5.3.2 Mixed DCV6T : C60 Layers 5.4 Effect of Substrate Heating on Mobility 6 DCV6T - C60 Solar Cells 6.1 Effect of Substrate Heating in DCV6T - C60 Solar Cells 6.1.1 Flat Heterojunction Solar Cells 6.1.2 Mixed Heterojunction Solar Cells 6.2 Influence of the Mixing Ratio 6.3 Optimizing the Layer Stack 6.3.1 Influence of the Transport Layer Thickness 6.3.2 Influence of the Mixed Layer Thickness 6.3.3 Discussion of Quantum Efficiency and Loss Mechanisms 6.4 Thermal Annealing 7 Conclusions and Outlook 7.1 Conclusions 7.2 Outlook Appendix Bibliography Acknowledgement

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