Press freedom has become one of the major challenges facing Journalism practice in the world. This paper explores the factors hindering press freedom in Nigeria using some relevant examples. The researcher used the qualitative method of research; using secondary data comprising of books and journals. The study is embedded on social responsibility theory. The study reveals that there are a lot of factors in Nigeria that hinders press freedom ranging from secrecy, legal pressure, direct censorship and force among others. Findings also reveal that Nigerian press freedom is a paradox and only exist on paper i.e. in the constitution but not in practice. The study recommends that since press freedom is granted in the constitution of Nigeria, there should be statutory backup and in order not to hinder press freedom, journalist should be allowed to have access to government sources and records so long as it will not bring chaos to the society at large

Jiang, Hongbing

Wang, David

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The microbial zoo in the C. elegans intestine: Bacteria, fungi and viruses

Apuke, Oberiri Destiny

CSCanada.net: E-Journals (Canadian Academy of Oriental and Occidental Culture, Canadian Research & Development Center of Sciences and Cultures)

ISSN 1927-0232 [Print] ISSN 1927-0240 [Online]www.cscanada.netwww.cscanada.orgHigher Education of Social ScienceVol. 11, No. 2, 2016, pp. 32-34DOI:10.3968/885032Copyright © Canadian Research & Development Center of Sciences and CulturesExploring the Factors Affecting Press Freedom in Nigeria Oberiri Destiny Apuke[a],*[a]Department of Mass Communication, Taraba State University, Jalingo, Nigeria. *Corresponding author.Received 4 June 2016; accepted 8 August 2016 Published online 26 September 2016AbstractPress freedom has become one of the major challenges facing Journalism practice in the world. This paper explores the factors hindering press freedom in Nigeria using some relevant examples. The researcher used the qualitative method of research; using secondary data comprising of books and journals. The study is embedded on social responsibility theory. The study reveals that there are a lot of factors in Nigeria that hinders press freedom ranging from secrecy, legal pressure, direct censorship and force among others. Findings also reveal that Nigerian press freedom is a paradox and only exist on paper i.e. in the constitution but not in practice. The study recommends that since press freedom is granted in the constitution of Nigeria, there should be statutory backup and in order not to hinder press freedom, journalist should be allowed to have access to government sources and records so long as it will not bring chaos to the society at large.Key words: Press freedom; Journalism; Journalist; Hinders; Nigeria. Apuke, D. O. (2016). Exploring the Factors Affecting Press Freedom in Nigeria . Higher Education of Social Science, 11(2), 32-34. Available from: URL: http://www.cscanada.net/index.php/hess/article/view/8850 DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3968/8850INTRODUCTIONPress freedom has become one of the major challenges facing Journalism practice in the world.  Media practitioners have faced a lot of hindrances to their operations making them to go out of practice. Press freedom does not have a straight jacketed defini t ion;  i t  is  the r ight  of  the mass media to communicate ideas, opinions and information. It has to do with the right of the media to criticize the political, economic and social institution of the country (Asemah, 2011). According to Onagoruwa (1985), press freedom “is the right of the press to publish without being subjected to any form of intimidation, molestation or blackmail”. To the above scholars press freedom connotes the liberty to publish news or information without formal or informal restraints. But press freedom is a term solely defined but not practiced at large. That is why the paper seeks to explore press freedom in Nigeria using referenced documentation.But does press freedom really exist in any part of the world? Press freedom exists in some parts of the world but not 100%.1. CONCEPTUAL CLARIFICATION The definition of press freedom varies from author to author as mentioned above, it has no straight jacketed form. According to Sambe and Ikoni (2004, p.11), “press freedom focuses its attention on the unrestrained liberty to write or publish information for the consumption of the public”. Agee, Ault, and Emery, (1979, p.29) define press freedom as “freedom to print without prior restraint”. This implies that press freedom is the liberty given to a journalist to be free to write without fear or favour. A Journalist has the ability to burrow into the ills of the society thereby making the public aware of happening in their environment. It is vital for the mass media institution to be entrusted with the accountability of observation of the environment through the presentation and analysis of the happenings in society. Indeed, it is hard to picture a modern society without the press.33 Copyright © Canadian Research & Development Center of Sciences and CulturesOberiri Destiny Apuke (2016). Higher Education of Social Science, 11(2), 32-342. THEORETICAL FRAME WORKTheories are concept/phenomenon that helps in the clarification or explanation of certain issues. The theory used for this study is rooted from the normative theories as it discusses how media operate in different countries. This theory postulates that the media can be used by anyone who has an idea to express but they are forbidden to invade private rights or disrupt social structures. It emphasizes the freedom of the press and places responsibility on the media practitioners to abide by certain social standards. It opposes media regulation but believes that the press is automatically controlled by community opinion, consumer protest and professional ethics. It calls on the media to be responsible for fostering productive and creative “Great Communities” and that media should do this by prioritizing cultural pluralism- by becoming the voice of all the people – not just elite groups or groups that had dominated national, regional or local culture in the past. It also points out that the media, in carrying out their obligations, must adhere to the highest ethical standards. (Baran & Davis, 2003, p.109).This theory is relevant to the study as it is well known that no country has 100% press freedom, therefore, every freedom of the press depends on the country the press is situated. This study explores press freedom in Nigeria, stating the factors that hinder press freedom in Nigeria. 3. HOW FREE IS NIGERIAN PRESS?There are a lot of factors in Nigeria that have hindered press freedom. According to Momoh (2002, p.10) restrictive media laws could be said to have actually taken roots in 1903 with the enactment of Newspaper Ordinance of that year and the sedition Ordinance of 1909. As Momoh recalled, perhaps the most notorious press gag law was the 1917 Act. Nwanne (2014), adds that no doubt, these laws were put in place to curb the perceived “excesses” of the local press and sufficiently frighten them to desist from attacking the Colonial Administration. Tellingly, most of those Draconian laws have remained in Nigeria’s law books because the new rulers who took over from the colonialists were not interested in abrogating them. Not unexpectedly, therefore, in 1964, this earlier Act was amended and has been the basis of anti-press laws in Nigeria. The first civilian administration under Tafawa Balewa, the Prime Minister enacted the law. If the civilian administration was not particularly media-friendly, it was even worse with the subsequent military administrations, each of them trying to outdo each other in an effort to put the media in its “rightful place”.Against this backdrop, this study discusses some factors hindering press freedom as outline by Asemah (2011):(a) Legal PressureEven though press freedom is granted in the constitution, there is no statutory backup in Nigeria. Journalist do not enjoy press freedom as the constitution counteract each other for instance section 39 of the 1999 Nigerian constitution qualifies and tactically curtails freedom of expression and of the press. Subsection two of section 39 places prior restraint on the ownership of the media for the exercise of freedom of speech particularly on the broadcast media.Chigbo, (2007) observes that section 39 subsections 3 validates and justifies any law made for the purpose of preventing disclosure of information received in strict confidence while in the service of the state in government. Section 45 of the constitution further limits the exercise of freedom of expression and the press. “This shows that even though press freedom is guaranteed in the constitution of Nigeria, it is only a mere say as there are techniques used by government in Nigeria to dodge what has been guaranteed in the constitution”.(b) Economic and Political PressureThe economic and political pressure in Nigeria makes some newspapers or radio station most especially government owned to publish things in support of the government by so doing the definition of press freedom is defeated.(c) SecrecySecrecy in Nigeria limits the right of the people to know, by hindering the press from having access to government sources and records. We have government agencies or officials evading journalist so that they cannot get information about government activities.(d) Direct Censorship and ForceThe government uses forces, violence and harassment to restrict press freedom. There are many instances when Journalist were physically brutalized in an event to cover a report. We have instance of Dele Giwa who was killed via a letter bomb because he was expressing his view on public issues.4. REASONS FOR PRESS FREEDOMMany wrongly believe that press freedom is all about introverted freedom of journalists to print or air whatever pleases them. But that is not so the real situation is that journalist is professionals saddled with the responsibility of gathering, analyzing and presenting of news of the day to the people. Therefore Journalists require commendation and a bit of respect. Given this much responsibility, Oji (2006, p.424) makes clear argument on the need for freedom of the press. He postulated that the press requires freedom for the following reasons. ●  That the media must have constitutional safeguards to enhance the discharge of its duties. ●  That the media must have access to information; 34Copyright © Canadian Research & Development Center of Sciences and CulturesExploring the Factors Affecting Press Freedom in Nigeria ●  That the media should be protected to protect and prevent the disclosure of sources of information; ●  Call for the stipulation of freedom of the press in the text of nations’ constitutions and that it should be proceeded by a statement of the obligation of the press; ●  Where there are sedition laws in the world, clauses which do not see truth as a condition for the free practice of journalism should be expunged; ●  In places where the constitution or any act cedes the power to grant a media license to any government official, such as Section 39 of the 1999 constitution and replicated in the National Broadcasting Commission Decree of 1992, should be expunged. CONCLUSION There is no part of the world where you have 100% press freedom. This is because, there are external and internal bodies which often regulate press activities in Nigeria such as legal, economic, political, secrecy and direct censorship/force restrict the full performance of the press in Nigeria. RECOMMENDATIONSBased on the aforementioned discussions the researcher proffers the following recommendations.●  Since press freedom is granted in the constitution of Nigeria, there should be statutory backup in. Journalist should be allowed to enjoy press freedom. ●  In order not to hinder press freedom, journalist in Nigeria should be allowed to have access to government sources and records as long as it will not bring chaos to the society at large.REFERENCESAgee, W. K., Ault, P. H., & Emery, E. (1979). Introduction to mass communication (6th ed). New York: Harper and Row.Asemah. (2011). Selected mass media themes. Jos: Great Future Press.Baran, S., & Dàvis, D. K. (2003). Mass communication theories. New York: McGraw Hill.Chigbo, R. (2007). Mass media in Nigeria: Perspective on growth and Development. Makurdi: Aboki Publishers. Momoh, T. (2002). Nigerian media laws. Lagos: Efua Media Associates.Nwanne, B. U. (2014). Another look at press freedom In Nigeria. European Journal of Research in Social Sciences, 2(4).Onagoruwa, T. (1985). New directions for journalism in Nigeria Ibadan. NUJ-NTA Oji, M. (2006). Comparative media systems: A global view of press freedom. In N. Okoro (Ed.), International Journal of Communication, (6).Sambe, J. A., & Ikoni, U. D. (2004). Mass media and ethics in Nigeria. Ibadan: Caltop Publications Nigeria Ltd.

Exploring the Factors Affecting Press Freedom in Nigeria

This study explicates the relationship between citizen journalism and ICT in Nigeria. It explores the pros and cons of ICT and citizen journalism. Qualitative research method was employed for the collection of secondary data which comprised of books, magazines and journals. The study reveals that in as much as citizen journalism and ICT are interwoven, numerous issues and challenges associated with ICT are confronting the efficiency of citizen journalism in Nigeria. Blogging, podcasting and mablogging among others have made internet users (Netizens) to no longer passively consume media news but actively participate in them. Another issue confronting citizen journalism and ICT is the fact that there are no editors (gatekeepers) in the news and information disseminated through citizen journalism using the available ICT media. No editors to verify the truth within what someone has written, unlike in the traditional journalism and in the world of endless information, credibility is a very essential ingredient for information seekers. To curtail some of the issues affecting citizen journalism/participation, the study recommends that participants (citizen journalists) should try as much as possible to ensure that their news and information are edited by professionals before they are published. ICT facilities should be made available in areas where they are not available and at cheap cost to ensure that its range of targeted audience is vast, thus making it more efficient

ISSN 1927-0232 [Print] ISSN 1927-0240 [Online]www.cscanada.netwww.cscanada.orgHigher Education of Social ScienceVol. 11, No. 4, 2016, pp. 14-17DOI:10.3968/902714Copyright © Canadian Research & Development Center of Sciences and CulturesInformation Communication Technology and Citizen Journalism in Nigeria: Pros and ConsOberiri Destiny Apuke[a],*[a]Department of Mass Communication, Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, Taraba State University, Jalingo, Nigeria.*Corresponding author.Received 9 July 2016; accepted 14 September 2016 Published online 26 October 2016AbstractThis study explicates the relationship between citizen journalism and ICT in Nigeria. It explores the pros and cons of ICT and citizen journalism. Qualitative research method was employed for the collection of secondary data which comprised of books, magazines and journals. The study reveals that in as much as citizen journalism and ICT are interwoven, numerous issues and challenges associated with ICT are confronting the efficiency of citizen journalism in Nigeria. Blogging, podcasting and mablogging among others have made internet users (Netizens) to no longer passively consume media news but actively participate in them. Another issue confronting citizen journalism and ICT is the fact that there are no editors (gatekeepers) in the news and information disseminated through citizen journalism using the available ICT media. No editors to verify the truth within what someone has written, unlike in the traditional journalism and in the world of endless information, credibility is a very essential ingredient for information seekers. To curtail some of the issues affecting citizen journalism/participation, the study recommends that participants (citizen journalists) should try as much as possible to ensure that their news and information are edited by professionals before they are published. ICT facilities should be made available in areas where they are not available and at cheap cost to ensure that its range of targeted audience is vast, thus making it more efficient.Key words: Citizen journalism; ICT; Gatekeepers; Traditional journalism; Media professionals Apuke, O. D. (2016). Information Communication Technology and Cit izen Journal ism in Nigeria:  Pros and Cons.  Higher Education of Social Science, 11 (4), 14-17. Available from: URL: h t tp : / /www.cscanada .net / index.php/hess /ar t ic le /v iew/9027 DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3968/9027INTRODUCTIONTechnological advancement in contemporary society of the 21st century heralded the arrival of information and communication technologies (ICT) that have enhanced the existing communication process and the entire material in which individual interact with the world. The ICTS expanded frontier of communication channels refer to as new media have given birth to “citizen journalism”. These ICT driven communication channels include online information services, cable television, the internet and World Wide Web, among others. They have enhanced the reach and understanding of traditional mass media newspaper, magazine, television and radio. The new media have expanded the horizon of communication, and made the world smaller and communication process more rapid. 1. INFORMATION COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY ICT known as Information and Communication Technologies are communication gadgets, hardwires, equipment or facilities that have modernized, improve and ease exchange of ideas and information of various kinds between people within or across distant boundaries or frontiers. According to Nwabueze (2005, p.5) they are also called New Communication ‘Technologies (NCTs)2. CITIZEN JOURNALISMCitizen journalism practice is a term which describes the act of individual within a given society, community, 15 Copyright © Canadian Research & Development Center of Sciences and CulturesOberiri Destiny Apuke (2016). Higher Education of Social Science, 11(4), 14-17state or nation engaging in the gathering, processing and publishing of news materials (Burkholder, 2010, p.1). In this case, individuals on their own create web pages where they publish news materials collected within the society using prevalent modern technologies (in most cases mobile phones).None like the conventional way of the old media. Citizen Journalism is the participation of ordinary citizens in news gathering and reporting. This practice is made possible by the sophistication of ICTs which makes it possible for people to use their mobile phone to record still pictures, videos, and audio of events and post them to media houses and online channels such as YouTube, Twitter and other social media, for consumption by the general public. Some media houses receive and present information from citizen journalists and classify’ such reporters as amateur reporters or i-reporters. The typical example of citizen journalism is channels TV eye witness report. 3. ICT AND CITIZEN JOURNALISM IN NIGERIABefore now, newspapers and magazines were the only forms of print media until 1430-1450, when in Europe letters, books, posters, and other printed materials were added to the print media. These media of communication are essential tools for creating, expressing and molding public opinion on topical issues. The implication however is that much time and effort were expended in a bid to communicate with friends, families and business partners. However, Nsereka (2012) posits that journalism has moved from what can merely be seen in the content of newspapers to “cover the chronicling and interpretation of current events through many media which include newspapers, radio, television, magazines, films, etc.” (p.3). The internet and its accompanying social networks are, of course, not outside this spectrum in contemporary times. The business of journalism in present day Nigeria has taken cognizance of new Information Technologies (ITs) just like other developing countries of the world. The term is commonly used with computers and computer networks, but it also encompasses other information distribution technologies such as television and telephones. Asadu (2009) notes that the “transformation of the mass media landscape by information and communication technology (ICT) has opened a vista of opportunities and challenges for journalists” (p.82). In this new and technologically driven world, the profession of journalism has continued to prove interesting and challenging and modern-day journalists succeed in a lot more ways. They work occurrences, facts, ideas and opinions into intelligible and comprehensible messages received by thousands of millions of people, all over the world. They are gate-keepers who make important decisions before taking their piece to the editor and the receiving audience. Udeze (2012) has further noted that “in most developed and developing cultures, the internet is used to mobilize or encourage people to embrace a particular programme or idea” (p.54). Indeed, journalism practice in the modern world has experienced a paradigm shift necessitated by changes and innovations in information technologies. We see that journalism is experiencing a renaissance and communication scholars agree with the fact that the internet is a rapidly evolving medium disparate from the traditional media, and is redefining the conventional process. For instance, the phrases: “open source journalism,” “citizen journalism” and such other terms which refer to unpaid citizens, pseudo journalists who submit quasi-information to websites (such as Facebook, YouTube, Tweeter etc.) Web account of an African roasted for a barbeque in China; June, 2009 Facebook upload of the demonstration over the execution of an African in China are some typical examples. This kind of “journalism by the people” has been a controversial subject: Professional journalists are yet in a state of confusion, especially because of the high level of unethical indulgence by the so called citizen journalists. According to Okon (2001), since these technologies and media forms are alien to the Nigerian society, in particular, media houses and journalists should try as much as possible to acquire the required skills while adopting and adapting to state-of-the-art equipment in gathering, packaging and disseminating news and other relevant information to the public. The internet has made journalism practice easier for journalists via the exchange of messages with professionals and experts in various disciplines. This has introduced new market and new form of journalism in which journalists specialize as online journalists, content managers and editors for some websites/media organizations. This has made it imperative for them to train to acquire blogging skills, creating hypertext, adding contents to web pages, taking and uploading digital pictures. This study therefore sets out to ascertain the extent to which Nigerian journalists have integrated the use of information technology into their professional repertoire. The presence of information and communication technology (ICT) in the journalism profession of Nigeria has presented challenges and opportunities as well as development. However, studies have revealed that most Nigerian journalists lack the requisite knowledge/finesse to operate in the new media environment that is transforming the nature and mode of operation of the media in bringing about development (by providing information or programs that will expedite rapid development). It is however, unfortunate that the requisite state-of-the-art media gadgets or equipment needed for the media to function effectively in the above area 16Copyright © Canadian Research & Development Center of Sciences and CulturesInformation Communication Technology and Citizen Journalism in Nigeria: Pros and Consare scarcely available to the journalist. The new info-tech has helped editors/gate keepers in alleviating work-load and the reporter in preparing copies (reduction of errors and the pressure of meeting up with deadline etc.). The importance of ITs cannot be over-emphasized thus making it imperative for Nigerian media organizations to adopt and adapt to the new media environment. It is however, germane, though unfortunate, to add here that despite the new technologies in the sphere of journalism, it has increased the craze of unethical practices (where anyone can just write and disseminate information on the web without editing) thereby threatening the integrity and dignity of the journalism profession. However, the personal computer, the digital camera, the mobile phone and internet have challenged traditional journalism on almost every frontier. The global update of digital media has spawned user-generated contents and citizen journalism; the video journalist and the blogger, social networking sites and the massively, multiplayer online game.The rapidity and sophistication with which information and/or news is disseminated across the globe in the modern world via information technologies—especially the Internet/www cannot be over-emphasized. Fidler (2005) informs that the birth of new media does not precipitate the death of old media, rather than that, it evolves and adapt to changing media environment in a gradual process. Hence, it brings about improved and easier ways of handling communication tasks. Journa l i sm has  con t inued  to  undergo  much changes occasioned by innovations in information and communication technology in copy writing, reporting, page making, editing and filming as well as the whole production process. The journalism industry has experienced a land mark revolution brought upon it by advances in info-tech. in accordance with the foregoing, modern-day journalists must consider it an obligation to deal with issues pertaining to them. Lending credence to the above, Uwakwe (2012) notes that: in the mid 1990s, the www brought wide changes to the mass media. By this time, newspapers, magazines, TV and radio began to use the web in providing electronic access to information. It became possible to have access to both current and past information. Today, with a wide range of newspapers, any person can have access to previously published works. Some of these works have hyperlinks to many other texts as well as videos. About 20 years ago, reporters in Nigeria knew nothing about electronic data basis. Today, an array of electronic data basis and archives in addition to ever-growing digital options are playing full time on the field of digital convergence. Today, the newsroom is replete with technological devices not available to practitioners a few decades ago (p.3). At present, the availability of technological devices to some journalists in Nigeria (especially those who have computer related skill) has made it easy for them to type their stories on computers and/or word processors and this technology helps them to check and correct grammatical and spelling errors immediately. When journalists are done with typing, their stories are stored in a computer. The editor may be able to view the story in another remote screen if the systems are in a network, a kind of intranet. When the editor is done with the work, the story is finally transmitted to another computer, which sets the words in type. Journalism practice has indeed entered the electronic age.4. CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN ICT AND CITIZEN JOURNALISM In as much as citizen journalism and ICT are interwoven, the numerous issues and challenges associated with ICT are confronting the efficiency of citizen journalism in Nigeria. Blogging, podcasting and mablogging among others have made internet users (netizens) to no longer passively consume media news but actively participate in them.One major issue confronting citizen journalism and ICT is the fact that there are no editors (gatekeepers) in the news and information disseminated through citizen journalism using the available ICT media. No editors to verify the truth within what someone has written, unlike in the traditional journalism and in the world of endless information, credibility is a very essential ingredient for information seekers.Irrespective of the truth within the posted information, the most important thing is that, with the diffusion of the information or news. The targeted audience and the large number of average users of the internet are not empowered to receive new information than before.Another issue of ICT and citizen journalism is the range at which the news and information dispersed there cannot go into the remote audience that reside in places where ICT facilities are not available or accessible. As such, citizen journalism cannot be a very a very effective and efficient media tool to pass news and information in such areas. Many towns and villages in Nigeria do not have access to internet services, computer facilities etc. Even in areas where they are accessible, it will require leisure time (which is almost not available) and frequent entrance or connecting (logging in) by the citizen journalists and the audience to be able to either pass the news or information and to retrieve and use them. Prominent among the issues of ICT and citizen journalism is the high cost involved in putting it in place. Using ICT facilities to disseminate news and information involves high cost financially. As such, considering the general income level of Nigerians, it will not be a very efficient tool to disseminate news and information especially like that of security and health related news. The cost of acquiring ICT facilities and its accessories 17 Copyright © Canadian Research & Development Center of Sciences and CulturesOberiri Destiny Apuke (2016). Higher Education of Social Science, 11(4), 14-17is very high as such reducing the utilization of citizen journalism.Another issue involved in ICT and citizen journalism is that duplication, malpractices, wrong misleading information is the order of the day when it comes to citizen journalism. Most of the news and information passed using citizen journalism through ICT are not genuine. They are majorly propagandas that are aimed at either annoying or causing anger, promoting injustice or even creating enmity among the targeted audience. For instance, “the role citizen journalism played towards Nigeria 2015 general elections was instrumental considering the outcome of the elections” CONCLUSIONTechnological advancement in contemporary society of the 21st century heralded the arrival of information and communication technologies (ICT) that has enhance the existing communication process and the entire material in which individual interact with the world. The ICTS expanded frontier of communication channels refer to as new media have given birth to “citizen journalism”. These ICT driven communication channels include online information services, cable television, the internet and World Wide Web, among others. They have enhanced the reach and understanding of traditional mass media newspaper, magazine, television and radio. The new media have expanded the horizon of communication, and made the world smaller and communication process more rapid. In as much as citizen journalism and ICT are interwoven, the numerous issues and challenges associated with ICT are confronting the efficiency of citizen journalism in Nigeria. Blogging, podcasting and mablogging among others have made internet users (netizens) to no longer passively consume media news but actively participate in them.RECOMMENDATIONSTo curtail some of the issues affecting citizen journalism/participation, the study recommends that: (i) Participants (citizen journalists) should try as much as possible to ensure that their news and information are edited by professionals before they are published. (ii) ICT facilities should be made available to areas where they are not available and at cheap cost to ensure that its range of targeted audience is vast, thus making it more efficient.(iii) Government and other non-governmental functionaries should try to help subsidize the cost of ICT facilities. (iv) Strict measures should be put in place to punish those that use the medium to provoke anger and cause disunity, mayhem, violence of any kind.REFERENCESAsadu, C. A. (2009).  Anatomy of  communication for development. Rivers State, Nigeria: University of Port Harcourt Press. Burkholder C. (2010). Citizen journalism, cell journalism. Retrieved January 20 from http://www.journalismethics.ca/citizen_journalism/cell_journalis m.htmCampbell, D. (2001). Can the digital divide be contained? International Labour Review, 140(2), 119-141. Carlson, U. (2005). From NWICO to global governance of the information society. In O. Hemer & T. Tufte (Eds.), Media and global change: Rethinking communication for development (pp. 216-246). Buenos Aires Nordicom. Fildler, R., et al. (2005). New media theory: Principles of media morphosis. In P. B. Erik & B. Shona (Eds.), Living in the information age: A new media reader. Belmont, USA: Gretchen Otto, G&S Book Services. Fred, L. (1990). Postindustrial possibilities: A critique of economic discourse. Berkeley & Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press.Garrison, B. (2000). Journalists’ perceptionsof online information-gathering problems. Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly, 77(3), 500-514. Grangvist,  M. (2002). Assessing ICT in development: A critical practice perspective.  In O. Hemer & T. Tufte (Eds.), Media and global change: Rethinking communication for development (pp.285-296). Buenos Aires: Nordicom. McQuail, D. (1993). Mass communication theory. California: SAGE publications Inc. Nwabueze, C. (2005). Introduction to mass communication: Media ecology in the global village .  Top Shelves Publishers.

Information Communication Technology and Citizen Journalism in Nigeria: Pros and Cons

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The microbial zoo in the C. elegans intestine: Bacteria, fungi and viruses

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