Lewkowicz, Antoni G.

English

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88 about ice islands is deliberately detailed because of the confusion existing  in  the  general  literature  regarding  these  important  features. Thus,  my  criticisms  are  not  directed  toward  the  editor of this  bibliogra- phy.  According  to  Armstrong et a l . ,  1966, an  ice  island  is “a  form  of tabular  berg  found  in  the  Arctic  Ocean  with  a  thickness of 30 to 50 m” (in  actual  fact  thicknesses of 25-60 m  have  been  measured),  usually with a maximum area of up to 1 0 0  k m 2  and with “an undulating surface.” These features may become grounded, in which case the term  island  is  quite  appropriate. On the  other  hand,  the  term  iceberg  is defined  (Armstrong et a l . ,  1977) as  a  large  mass of floating or  stranded ice  of  greatly  varying  shape, usually more  than 5 m  above  sea  level, which  has  broken  away  from  a  glacier.  (The  word usually was  added  to include tabular bergs originating from low ice shelves.) However, many of the  “low”  Ellesmere  Island  ice  shelves,  parts of which  have  a freeboard of 5 m, are not composed of “glacier ice” nor are they attached  to  land  glaciers, so the  fragments  that  calve  from  them  would never qualify for the term iceberg. What are now unequivocally referred  to  as  icebergs  in  the  Antarctic  were  once  called  ice  islands, which,  as  we  have  seen,  is  a  term  now  reserved  exclusively  for the Arctic  Ocean  species.  Even  there  the  term  is  in  disfavour  with  current researchers  and  it  may be a  candidate  for  planned  obsolescence. Now,  when  one  looks  in  the  bibliography  subject  index  under ice islands  thickness  measurements and  finds  (entry 998) that  it  refers  to Antarctic  tabular  icebergs  up  to 280 m  thick,  then  a  correction  is  clearly in order. There are other similar cases to be found in the index- reference  system  concerning  ice  islands.  Lastly,  co-authors  take  up, and thus waste, space in the main “text.” Since this is not purely author-structured  it  would  seem  more  efficient  and  convenient  to  have  a separate  author  index. These  difficulties  contrast  with  some  very  entertaining  entries,  such as  one  (item 630) on iceberg  psychodynamics,  which  is  based on the hypothesis  that  icebergs  have  minds of their own (in  order  to  “explain” seemingly  erratic  drift  tracks).  Another  is  a  novel  patent  entry (1098) the  possible  brilliance  but  hopeless  impracticability ofwhich  is  shrouded in  an  indigestible  matrix of legal  prose.  There are even  five  bibliogra- phies  to be found  within  this  bibliography.  Could  there be  bibliogra- phies  within  those  bibliographies? Despite  these  criticisms  and  considering  the  full y e q  of  effort  that has  gone  into  producing  this  bibliography,  the  report  is  a  very  valuable and  indeed, so far,  the  most  complete  source of references on icebergs that I know  of, and  it is  well  worth  the  list  price  of $55. REFERENCES ARMSTRONG, T., ROBERTS, B.,  and SWITHINBANK, C. 1966. Illus- trated  glossary  of  snow  and ice. Cambridge. 60 p. -. 1977. Proposed  new  terms arid definitions for snow and ice  features. Polar  Record 18(116):501-502. HUGHES, T. 1986. The Jakobshavn Effect. Geophysical Research Letters 13(1):46-48. LINGLE, C. S . ,  HUGHES, T. J . ,  and  I@LLMEYER, R.C. 198 1. Tidal  flexure of Jakobshavn  Glacier,  West  Greenland.  Journal of Geophysical  Research 86(B5):3960-3968. LOEWE, F. 1971.  Historical  reference  to ice islands. Arctic 24(4):309. Gerald  Holdsworth National  Hydrology  Research  Institute Environment  Canada I1 Innovation Blvd. Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada S7N 3H5 THE  PERMAFROST  ENVIRONMENT.  By STUART A. HARRIS. Totowa,  New  Jersey:  Barnes  and  Noble, 1986.275 p., 94 diagrams, 20 photos,  index,  bib.  Hardbound. US$31 S O .  The  objective of this  book  is  to  provide  up-to-date  information on the use of permafrost  areas  and  the  problems of their  development  at  a  level suitable for advanced undergraduates and professionals. This is a REVIEWS laudable  aim  since  there  is  a gap in  the  literature on this  subject  and no such  review  of  this  rapidly  advancing  field  currently  exists  in  mono- graph  form.  The  author  has  worked  in  permafrost  regions  for  many years,  particularly  in  areas of high-altitude  permafrost,  and  therefore appears  well  qualified  to  conduct  this  task.  Unfortunately,  this  book falls  short of its  aspirations  and  is  flawed by omissions of information, by  factual  errors  and by poor  presentation. The  book  is  divided  into  ten  chapters.  After  an  introduction,  two lengthy  sections  deal  with  permafrost  identification,  nature  and  pro- cesses,  and  the  distribution  and  stability of permafrost.  The  remaining seven  chapters  cover  foundations,  roads  and  railways,  airfields,  the  oil and  gas  industry,  mining,  water  supply  and  waste  disposal,  and agriculture  and  forestry.  The  bulk of the  book  does  not  concern  the permafrost  environment per se but  rather  its  use.  With  the  exception of the  last  chapter,  all  the  rest  could  have  been  covered  better by  a  title such  as  “Permafrost  Engineering. ” The  best  chapter  is on the  oil  and  gas  industry  and  includes  descrip- tions of the drilling methods used on land in permafrost areas and offshore in the sub-sea permafrost of the Beaufort Sea. It draws together  literature on terrain  disturbance,  gas  hydrates,  sea  ice,  artifi- cial  islands,  pipelines  and  tankers. It is  disappointing,  however,  that the  topic of gas  pipelines  is  covered  in  less  than  two  pages  and  that  the Norman  Wells  to  Zama  oil  pipeline,  which  traverses  the  discontinuous permafrost  zone of Canada,  is  not  mentioned. In terms of content, the major shortcoming is that virtually all examples of engineering  methods  or  problems  are  North  American.  The greater degree of development of permafrost regions in the Soviet Union is rarely acknowledged, and in the chapter on airfields, for example,  there  is  a  map  showing  their  distribution  in  the U . S . S . R .  but no further  description  in  the  text.  It  is  recognized  that  it  is  not  easy  to obtain  information on the  Soviet Union, but  the  North  American  bias also  results  in  little  reference  in  any  chapter  to  Greenland,  Svalbard  or the  permafrost  areas  of  China  and  Tibet,  and no mention of northern Scandinavia. A number of factual errors are present in the book. The most unfortunate of these  is  the  statement  that  permafrost “. . . is  the  result of a  negative  heat  balance  at  the  surface  of  the  earth . . .” (p. 21). The heat  balance  at  the  earth’s  surface  in  a  permafrost  area  actually  can  be  in equilibrium,  producing  stable  permafrost,  can  be  positive,  producing degrading  permafrost,  or  can  be  negative,  resulting  in  aggrading permafrost.  The  explanation  given  perpetuates  a  popular  misconcep- tion  among  undergraduates  and  is  inexcusable  in  a  book  targetted  for this  group. The  presentation of the book leaves much to be desired, and responsibility  for  this  surely  must  rest  with  the  publisher.  The  pages were produced from camera-ready typescript rather than typeset. Numerous commas have been inserted by hand and there are a significant  number of typographical  errors.  There are too  few  photo- graphs,  considering  the  practical  approach  taken  to  the  subject  matter, and  after  reproduction  some  appear  too  dark  to  observe  the  details  noted in  the  text.  Diagrams are plentiful  and  generally  fairly  clear.  However, the  base  map  of  North  America  used  several  times in the  book  is  a  very poor choice for a discussion of permafrost. Most islands in the Canadian  arctic  archipelago are omitted,  with  the  result  that  the  airfield at  Resolute  Bay on Cornwallis  Island  appears  in  the  middle  of  sea  (Fig. 6.1) and the Polaris mine on Little Cornwallis Island (Fig. 8.1) accomplishes the same feat. There are also errors present on some diagrams,  such as the  Alaskan  and Yukon coastal  plain  appearing  as sub-sea  bottom  permafrost  (Fig. 1 .1 ) .  Despite flaws, selected pages of this book could be useful on a reading  list  for an undergraduate  course on the  development  of  the North.  Given  the  price of the  book,  however,  its  purchase  may  not  be the  best  use  of  limited  library  or  personal  resources. Antoni G .  Lewkowicz Department of Geography Erindale  Campus,  University of Toronto Mississauga, Ontario, Canada L5L  IC6 REVIEWS 89 Responsefiom the author: Although  the  writer  appreciates  the  constructive  input  in  the  above review,  there would appear  to be some  points  that  might  need  clarifica- tion.  The  intended  title of this  book  was Utilization of the Permafrost Environment, but  this  was  later  altered  since  it  was  thought  that  the subject  matter  was  sufficiently  well  described  both on the  dust  cover and  in  the  table of contents.  The  book  was  written  specifically  for  the Croom Helm Natural Environment - Problems and Management Series, and  therefore  the  title  was  restricted  to  the  format  being  used  in that  series.  Permafrost  studies  are  sufficiently  diverse  that  undoubtedly they now  warrant  the  status of an  independent  science  rather  than  being a  subject  to  be  annexed  by  one of the  conventional  fields of sciences, social  sciences  or  engineering. The  review  takes  exception  to  the  statement  that  permafrost “. . . is the  result of a  negative  heat  balance  at  the  surface  of  the  earth. . . .” Actually,  this  is  implied  in  the  definition  of  permafrost  (ground  that remains  below 0°C for  more  than  two  years),  but if one  considers  the implications of the  quotation,  he  will  find  that  additional  duration  and persistence of the  negative  heat  balance  after  the  formation of perma- frost  is  neither  stated  nor  necessarily  implied.  The  problem  of  disequi- librium conditions is discussed on pages 26-27, 31-33, and 56-57. Stability of permafrost  is  dealt  with on pages 68-72, together  with  a brief  summary of the  possible  effects  of  climatic  changes  such  as  the postulated  warming  due  to  changes  in  atmospheric  carbon  dioxide. It  should  be  noted  that  the  book f i s t  appeared  in  December  1985  in the  United  Kingdom, so the  manuscript  in  camera-ready  form  had  to  be delivered  in  early  1985  at  a  time  when  the  Zama  Lake-Norman  Wells pipeline  construction  was  hardly  complete,  let  alone  tested  and described in accessible sources. Examples were deliberately chosen from  English  language  literature  that  is  reasonably  accessible,  since few  of  our  students  read  Danish,  Polish,  Russian  or  Chinese. All  the material is available in the library of the Arctic Jnstitute of North America,  and  there  are  enough  translations  of  key  Russian  and  Chinese works  that  the  most  important  foreign  work  is  included. Stuart A .  Harris Department of Geography The  University of Calgary Calgary,  Alberta,  Canada T2N  IN4 YUKON  WILDLIFE:  A  SOCIAL  HISTORY. By ROBERTG. McCAND- LESS. Edmonton: The University of Alberta Press, 1985. 200 p. Map,  photos,  index,  bib.,  appendix:  transcripts  of  oral  histories by John Joe, Frank  Goulter,  and  Johnny  Taku  Jack.  Softbound. Cdn$14.95.  Distributed  in  U.S.  by  University  of  Nebraska  Press, Lincoln,  Nebraska.  US$14.95. Yukon  Territory  is  an  enclave of half  a  million  square  kilometres of mostly wilderness, where wildlife has been an essential part of the economy - traditionally  as  a  livelihood  for  the  inhabitants,  and  after 1900  as  a  source  of  revenue  for  the  territorial  government.  By  tracing changing attitudes toward wildlife as reflected in law and custom, McCandless has in effect outlined the Yukon’s recent history. His central  theme  touches upon nearly  every  important  aspect  of  life  in  that comer of Canada:  the  native  trapping  industry  and  the  fur  trade,  the Gold  Rush  and  subsequent  mining  enterprises,  subsistence  and  market hunting  for  wild  meat,  fur  farming,  the  evolution  of  territorial  govern- ment,  big  game  outfitting,  shipping by steamboat  and  rail,  the  World War I1 intrusion of roads,  aerodromes,  telecommunications  and  the media and, finally, the post-war influx of permanent settlers from “outside”  cultures. This  book  is very welcome.  Until  recently,  Canadians  and  Ameri- cans  alike  have  avoided  serious  analysis  of  the processes that  have transformed  culture  and  economics  in  the  northern  and  northwestern continent.  These  processes  have  been  encouraged,  when imposed, by remote politicians, bureaucrats and urban interest groups whose attitudes were formed under conditions quite different  from  those of the  “frontier.”  The  main  trend of such pressures, particularly since the 1940s, has been to bring law and custom into line with practices instituted elsewhere, ignoring the abundant  wildlife,  the  thin  and  scattered  population  using it,  and  the generally  stagnant  economies of such  isolated  regions. McCandless’s  treatment  of  the  Yukon’s  unique  situation  is  thought- ful  and  discerning.  His  study  is  based on an  analysis of documents  in the  territorial  and  other  archives  and  is  supplemented  by  oral  histories obtained  from  articulate  Yukon  old-timers  (there  should  be  much  more of the  like  collected).  It  is  informed  by  professional  knowledge acquired  during  work  for  the  territorial  Wildlife  Branch  and  the  federal Environmental  Protection  Service.  He  hopes  that  the  “example  pro- vided by  the  Yukon  can  help  illuminate  problems of wildlife  manage- ment  which  may  be  encountered  in  other  jurisdictions.”  He  is  calling for  a  deeper  sensitivity  to  regional  conditions. After  a  preliminary  chapter on game  law  history (of which  more later),  McCandless  first  reviews  game  law  affecting  the  Yukon, attending  to  the  jurisdictional  bases of its  sometimes  conflicting  author- ity.  The  core of the  book  separately  considers  big  game  hunting  and  the fur industry, although he acknowledges that, of course, these two “themes” are inextricably  related,  especially  as  hunting  and  trapping involve  the  native  population. Game laws pertinent to the Yukon begin with The Unorganized Territories’ Game Preservation Act of 1894 (more concerned with Canadian  sovereignty  than  with  preservation of wild  animals)  and  the Yukon  Act  of  1900,  Canada’s  response  to  the  invasion of 30 000 gold seekers by establishing a quasi-provincial government with a two- member  council  and  legislative  powers  over  wildlife  resources. Changes  in  the  game  regulations  from  1900  to  1950provide  a  “weather vane” of attitudes  essentially  cultural  in  origin.  These  attitudes  ranged from  taboos on shooting  female  big  game  to  “cycles of wolf-hating,’’ from exemption of Indians from certain regulations to barring of Indians as independent contractors or “outfitters” in the big game hunting  industry. Because of the “cultural equilibrium” between Indians and non- Indians  prior  to  the  1940s,  the  few  thousand  adults  living  in  the  Yukon were  generally  unaffected  by  game  regulations.  “Virtually  the  entire population . . . were wildlife users,” McCandless says; self- government  and  an  isolated  situation  allowed  them  to  resist  irrelevant pressures.  Because  of  their  self-reliance,  coupled  with  rather  stable  fur prices,  Yukoners  did  not  feel  the  Great  Depression of the  1930s  as severely  as  did  other  Canadians.  Complicating  factors  in  this  period, however,  included  the  necessity of cooperating  with  Ottawa  to  preserve the  territory’s  feeble  status  as  a  political  entity;  meddling  by  myopic  but influential trophy hunters who viewed the Indians as “wasters of game”; the determination  of  a  government  licensing  agent  in Whitehorse  to  reserve  the  the  guiding  business  for  white  residents;  and Alaska’s  requests  for  coordination of controls  along  the  border. The invasion in 1942 of thousands of soldiers and civilians for construction  of  the  Alaska  Highway,  Northwest  Staging  Route  aero- dromes  and  related  military  projects  disrupted  forever  the  Yukoners’ simple  but  fairly  comfortable  isolation.  The  intrusion  resulted  in  the shift  of  the  centre of decision  making  from  Dawson  City  to  Whitehorse and  exposed  the  inhabitants  to  the  full  force  of  “metropolitan  views” of  game  conservation  and  to  Alberta-born  theories of game  manage- ment.  A  catalyst  for  change,  McCandless  shows,  was the Yukon  Fish and  Game  Association,  “townspeople,  most  of  them  strangers  to the Territory.” The medium for change was the indecisive territorial government, which, unlike British Columbia and Alaska, granted resident  hunting  licenses  to  military  personnel. One  imported notion was  trapline  registration,  incompatible  with  the life,  culture,  economics  and  conservation  practices  of  Yukon  Indian trappers.  Another  such  borrowing  was  the  wolf-poisoning  program, originally  a  palliative  for  Alberta  ranchers.  Abolition  of  market  hunting infringedon  the  livelihood f Yukoners.  Meanwhile,  outfitters  acquired monopolies of hunting  areas,  buying  and  selling  them  as  real  estate although  they  had no legal  tenure. 

The Permafrost Environment, by Stuart A. Harris

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The Permafrost Environment, by Stuart A. Harris

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