In the present study, we examined the effect of wins and losses on impulsive action in gambling (Experiments 1-3) and non-gambling tasks (Experiments 4-5). In each experiment, subjects performed a simple task in which they had to win points. On each trial, they had to choose between a gamble and a non-gamble. The gamble was always associated with a higher amount but a lower probability of winning than the non-gamble. After subjects indicated their choice (i.e. gamble or not), feedback was presented. They had to press a key to start the next trial. Experiments 1-3 showed that, compared to the non-gambling baseline, subjects were faster to initiate the next trial after a gambled loss, indicating that losses can induce impulsive actions. In Experiments 4 and 5, subjects alternated between the gambling task and a neutral decision-making task in which they could not win or lose points. Subjects were faster in the neutral decision-making task if they had just lost in the gambling task, suggesting that losses have a general effect on action. Our results challenge the dominant idea that humans become more cautious after suboptimal outcomes. Instead, they indicate that losses in the context of potential rewards are emotional events that increase impulsivity.This work was supported by an Economic and Social Research Council Grant
(ES/J00815X/1) to FV, CDC & IPLM, a starting grant to FV from the European Research
Council (ERC) under the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme
(FP7/2007-2013)/ ERC Grant Agreement No. 312445, and a Biotechnology and Biological
Sciences Research Council Grant (BB/K008277/1) to CDC and FV
