SEIWA  Kenji

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SEIWA, Kenji

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Is the Janzen-Connell Hypothesis Valid inTemperate Forests?著者 SEIWA  Kenjijournal orpublication titleJournal of Integrated Field Sciencevolume 7page range 3-8year 2010-03URL http://hdl.handle.net/10097/488283Symposium PaperIs the Janzen–Connell Hypothesis Valid in Temperate Forests?Kenji SEIWAField Science Center, Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tohoku University,Naruko-Onsen, Osaki, Miyagi, 989-6711, Japane-mail: seiwa@bios.tohoku.ac.jpReceived 5 November; accepted 1 February 2010AbstractAlthough degradation of biodiversity is a world-wide concern, relatively little evidence is available on the mechanisms of biodiversity. If sustainability of forest ecosystem is closely related to species di-versity, recovery of species diversity is important for forest  managers. Thus, it is important to understand the mechanisms of biodiversity in forest ecosystems. The Janzen–Connell hypothesis is one of the most important hypotheses explaining species diversity in tropical forests. To examine whether this hypothesis is also valid in temperate forests, we investigated the density, growth, mortality, and agents of mortality of seedlings, and the density, size, and age of saplings of Prunus grayana at three distances (0–3, 6–10, and 16–26 m) from conspeciﬁ c adults in a temperate forest in Japan. The probability of mortality was highest at 0–3 m during the first 2 years of growth. Mortality mainly resulted from distance-dependent attack by two types of pathogen that caused damping-off epi-demics and spot symptoms on leaves. Vertical and di-ameter growth was lowest at 0–3 m and highest at 16–26 m in both seedlings and saplings. The results sug-gest that seed dispersal enhances the probability of survival by distancing offspring from adults because natural enemies reduce recruitment near conspeciﬁ c adults in a distance-dependent manner, freeing space for other plant species. Such phenomena affect spe-cies diversity within plant communities. The traits demonstrate that the Janzen–Connell mechanism also operates in a temperate forest in Japan. Knowledge of the mechanisms of species diversity and of eco-system functioning will encourage forest mangers to create mixed hardwood–coniferous forests rather than monocultures.Loss of species diversity in forest ecosystems Humans are altering the composition of biologi-cal communities through a variety of activities that increase rates of species invasion and species extinc-tions from local to global scales. These changes in components of Earth’s biodiversity lead to ethical and aesthetic concerns, but also have a strong potential to alter ecosystem properties and the goods and services that biodiversity provides to humanity (Hopper et al. 2005). Increasing evidence is available on the effects of biodiversity on ecosystem properties such as pro-ductivity, carbon storage, hydrology, and nutrient cycling (e.g., Tilman et al. 1996; Hopper et al. 2005). Although degradation of biodiversity is a worldwide concern at both global and local scales, relatively lit-tle evidence is available on the mechanisms involved. If biodiversity is a consequence of biotic interactions, linkage between biodiversity and ecosystem function-ing (services for humans) is inevitable. In Japan, a large area of the natural virgin forest has been clear-cut and converted to monoculture, such as in Japanese cedar plantations established after World War II. Now, conifer plantations occupy one-quarter of the total area of Japan (10 million ha; Forestry Ag., 2006). Even-aged conifer forests generally have low value for wildlife, are susceptible to pests and strong winds, and may create a more acid soil. If sus-tainability of forest ecosystems is closely related to species diversity, recovery of species diversity is an important management goal for forest managers, and it is essential that they understand the mechanisms of forest ecosystems. Hypotheses explaining species diversityA substantial number of hypotheses have been presented to explain species diversity in forest com-munities (Fig. 1). In temperate forests, it was thought that species diversity is mainly created by abiotic factors such as heterogeneity of light, water, and nu-JIFS, 7 : 3 ? 8 (2010)4trients, which are closely related to topography and gap creation. In tropical forests, increasing evidence has demonstrated the effects of biotic agents such as pathogens and herbivores, each of which has an important role in maintaining species diversity. One of the most important hypothesis regarding tropical forests is the Janzen–Connell hypothesis. Janzen (1970) and Connell (1971) proposed that spatial patterns of juvenile mortality caused by natu-ral enemies (i.e., pathogens and herbivores) could be a key factor in maintaining high tree diversity. They predicted that seed dispersal enhances the probabil-ity of survival by distancing offspring from adults because host-speciﬁ c natural enemies reduce recruit-ment near conspeciﬁ c adults in a density-dependent and/or distance-dependent manner, freeing space for other plant species (Fig. 2). Such phenomena affect species diversity within plant communities. In a large number of tree populations, density- and distance-dependent analyses of microbial pathogens and in-vertebrate or vertebrate herbivores support the Janzen–Connell hypothesis for tropical forests (e.g., Augs-purger 1983; Gilbert  2005; Bell et al. 2006). Recent community-level studies have also shown that the density- or distance-dependent mortality of progeny plays an important role in the maintenance of plant Fig. 1. Hypotheses explaining species diversity in forest communities.Fig. 2. Janzen–Connell hypothesisSeiwa5alpha diversity in tropical moist forests (Wills et al. 1997; Harms et al. 2000; reviewed by Wright 2002), but several previous studies found density- or dis-tance-dependent trends in half or fewer of the species examined (Connell et al. 1984; Condit et al. 1992). Fewer studies have tested the Janzen–Connell hy-pothesis in temperate forests than in tropical forests. Although several studies in temperate forests have reported the density and distance dependence of tree seed and seedling mortality (e.g., Lambers and Clark 2003), little evidence is available regarding the causes of mortality and the consequent spatial patterns of progeny (but see Packer and Clay 2000; Masaki and Nakashizuka 2002; Tomita et al. 2002; Kotanen  2007). Recently, Seiwa et al. (2008) clearly demonstrated that the Janzen–Connell hypothesis is valid for a deciduous broadleaf tree, Prunus grayana, in a temperate forest of northern Japan. In this review, I explain how the cause of seedling mortality changes in type and intensity with distance from the parent and how the relationship between age and juvenile size changes with distance from the parent in a tem-perate hardwood forest. Distant- and density-dependent mortalityAlthough seedling density was highest beneath (0–3 m) and lowest far (16–26 m) from an adult, the mortality of Prunus grayana seedlings decreased with increasing distance from conspecific adults. However, the percentage mortality was higher at 0–3 m than at 6–10 m or 16–26 m at the end of both growing seasons examined. These results indicate the distance-dependent mortality of seedlings of Prunus grayana in a temperate forest.Causes of mortalityDistance-dependent mortality was caused mainly by pathogen activity on seedlings beneath adult conspeciﬁ cs (Fig. 3). The percentage mortality from the pathogens that cause damping-off and from Pha-eoisariopsis pruni-grayanae was greater at 0–3 m than at 6–10 m and 16–26 m, whereas few effects were observed for vertebrate herbivores, invertebrate herbivores, and physical damage (Fig. 3, 4). In P. grayana, damping-off accounted for a much greater proportion of seedling mortality than did other fac-tors and was higher close to parent trees. Bell et al. (2006) found that seedling death of a tropical tree was not directly affected by the density itself, but by Fig. 3. Seedlings killed by individual agents of mor-tality during the first growing season: dif-ferences among distances from conspecific adults (under, 0–3 m; near, 6–10 m; far, 16–26 m). (Seiwa et al. 2008)Fig. 4. Kiling agents for the current-year seedlings of Prunus grayana. Spot symptoms on the leaves caused by the leaf pathogen, Pha-eoisariopsis pruni-grayanae Sawada, which infected many more seedlings of P. grayana than seedlings of the two other tree species tested in inoculation experiments (a; Seiwa et al. 2008). Conidia and conidiophores char-acteristic of Phaeoisariopsis (b). Damping off epidemics caused by soilborne pathogens such as Colletotrichum, Phoma, Cladospo-rium, and Fusarium (c). Vertebrate herbivore, Apodemus speciosus.the density-mediated infection of damping-off patho-gens. They conducted a manipulation experiment in which the effect of density was clearly separated Is the Janzen–Connell Hypothesis Valid in Temperate Forests?6from that of pathogens (Bell et al. 2006). Therefore, heavy seed rain may not overwhelm the effects of pathogens, but rather reinforce them. We also found that the leaf pathogen P. pruni-grayanae attacked P. grayana seedlings in a distance-dependent manner, although the effects were much lower than were those of damping-off pathogens.In temperate forests, similar traits of distance-dependent morality by pathogens were observed for Prunus serotina in North America (Packer and Clay 2000) and P. grayana in Japan. Furthermore, in a seed-sowing experiment of eight species co-occurring within a forest community, we found that six species (i.e., Castanea crenata, Cornus controversa, Fraxinus lanuginosa, Magnolia obovata, P. grayana, Fagus crenata) showed distance- and/or density-dependent mortality caused by pathogenic fungi (Yamazaki et al. 2009). These traits, together with evidence of distance-dependent mortality by pathogens for C. controversa (Masaki and Nakashizuka 2002) and F. crenata (Tomita et al. 2002), suggest that the effects are not specific to the genus Prunus, but are more general for tree species in temperate as well as tropi-cal forests.Reduction of vertical growth beneath the adultsThe height of saplings increased with age, and this increase was most at 16–26 m from the adult and slowest at 0–3 m (Fig. 5). What is the most important cause of the reduction of vertical growth beneath conspeciﬁ c adults? Little difference among the three distances was observed for either relative PPFD or soil water potential, suggesting only slight inﬂ uence of abiotic factors on sapling growth. Although patho-gens that cause damping-off epidemics can affect plants of any age, damage caused by their infection is usually highest during the early stages of seedling growth and decreases with increasing maturity (Sa-hashi et al. 1995; Martin and Loper 1999). Further-more, infection of large and old plants is often limited to the ﬁ ne roots, suggesting that damping-off patho-gens become less important growth-inhibiting agents as plants increase in size. In contrast, the pathogen P. pruni-grayanae strongly reduces plant performance (growth and survival), irrespective of plant size, be-cause it usually causes early shedding of leaves with necrotic spots. We observed this pathogen over a large area of individual leaves for seedlings, saplings, and adults (Miwa and Seiwa personal observation; see also Kobayashi et al. 1992). Furthermore, a high-er number of diseased leaves fall onto conspecific juveniles, particularly in the vicinity of adults. This suggests that continued distance-dependent reduced sapling performance (mortality and growth) could re-sult from pathogen activity, especially that of this leaf pathogen. Consequences of distance- or density-depen-dent seedling mortalityAn exploration of the consequences of distance- or density-dependent seedling mortality is also needed. Even though density-dependent seedling mortality is observed, the highest density of survivors occurs in the vicinity of adults when most seeds land close to these adults (Nathan and Casagrandi 2004). The full extent of recruitment reduction near fruiting con-specifics has been systematically underestimated in short-term studies focused on the very early stages of regeneration because distance- and density-dependent reductions in performance accumulate as juveniles grow (Wright 2002). Therefore, the spatial distribu-tion of saplings is more important than the spatial distribution of seedlings for determining species di-versity within a community. In P. grayana, the smallest and youngest saplings were distributed at 0–3 m, whereas a higher number of larger and older saplings were observed at 16–26 m. P. grayana saplings can survive gap-forming events, grow more rapidly in gaps than below the canopy, and reach the canopy in a single gap cycle Fig. 5. Relationships between age and height of saplings at three distances from conspecific adults.Seiwa7(Hara et al. 1991). These characteristics suggest that the larger saplings at 16–26 m have a higher prob-ability of recruitment to the canopy than do smaller saplings at 0–3 m or 6–10 m because larger plants usually out-compete smaller neighbors for resources (i.e., light) under crowded conditions after canopy gap formation. In contrast, competitor-free space near adults of P. grayana should promote recruitment of other tree species. As a result, the adults are distrib-uted randomly in the studied forest (Fig. 6). Implications for forest managementIf the Janzen–Connell hypothesis is valid in tem-perate forests, replacement of individual tree species would occur at a ﬁ ne scale, generating species diver-sity in the forest communities even in temperate for-ests. Knowledge of the mechanisms of species diver-sity and of ecosystem functioning would encourage forest mangers to create mixed hardwood–coniferous forests instead of monocultures because diversity be-comes increasingly important as a management goal, from both economic and ecological perspectives.ReferencesAugspurger, C. K. (1983) Offspring recruitment around a tropical tree, Platypodium elegans, and the escape of its seedlings from fungal pathogens. J. Ecol. 71: 759-771.Bell, T., R. P. Freckleton and O. T. 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E. Hartley.  Cambridge University Press, Cam-bridge, UK. pp. 141-164.Hara, M., T. Takehara and Y. Hirabuki (1991)  Struc-ture of a Japanese beech forest at Mt. Kurikoma, north-eastern Japan. Saito-Ho-on Kai Museum Res. Bull. 59: 43-55.Harms, K. E., S. J. Wright, O. Calderon, A. Hernan-dez and E. A. Herre (2000) Pervasive density-dependent recruitment enhances seedling diversity in a tropical forest.  Nature, 404: 7493-7495.Hooper, D. U. et al. (2005) Effects of biodiversity on ecosystem functioning: a consensus of current knowledge.  Ecol. Monogr. 75: 3-35.Janzen, D. H. (1970) Herbivores and the number of tree species in tropical forests.  Am. Nat. 104: 501-528. Kobayashi, T., T. Katsumoto, K. Abiko, K. Abe and M. Kakishima (1992) Illustrated Genera of Plant Pathogenic Fungi in Japan. Zenkoku Noson Kyo-uiku Kyokai, Tokyo, Japan.Kotanen, P. M. (2007) Effects of fungal pathogens under conspecific and hetero-specific trees in a temperate forest.  Can. J. Bot. 85: 918-925.Lambers, J. H. R. and J. S. Clark (2003) Effects of dispersal, shrubs, and density-dependent mortality on seed and seedling distribution in temperate for-ests. Can. J. For. Res. 33: 783-795.Fig. 6. Spatial distribution pattern of the adults of Prunus grayana.Is the Janzen–Connell Hypothesis Valid in Temperate Forests?8Martin, F. N. and J. E. Loper (1999) Soilborne plant diseases caused by Pythium spp.: ecology, epide-miology, and prospect for biological control. Crit. Rev. Pl. Sci. 18: 111-181.Masaki, T. and T. Nakashizuka (2002) Seedling de-mography of Swida controversa: effect of light and distance to conspeciﬁ cs. Ecology, 83: 3497-3507.Nathan, R. and R. Casagrandi (2004) A simple mech-anistic model of seed dispersal, seed predation and plant establishment: Janzen–Connell and beyond. J. Ecol. 9: 733-746.Packer,  A. and K. Clay (2000) Soil pathogens and spatial patterns of seedling mortality in a temper-ate tree. Nature, 404: 278-281.Sahashi, N., T. Kubono and T. Shoji (1995) Pathoge-nicity of Colletorichum demetium isolated from current-year seedlings exhibiting damping-off. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 25: 145-151.Seiwa, K., Y. Miwa, N. Sahashi, H. Kanno, M. To-mita, N. Ueno and M. Ymazaki  (2008) Pathogen attack and spatial patterns of juvenile mortality and growth in a temperate tree, Prunus grayana. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 38: 2445–2454.Tilman, D., D. Wedin and J. Knops (1996) Productiv-ity and sustainability inﬂ uenced by biodiversity in grassland ecosystems.  Nature 379: 718-720.Tomita, M., Y. Hirabuki and K. Seiwa (2002) Post-dispersal changes in the spatial distribution of Fagus crenata seeds. Ecology, 83: 1560-1565.Wills, C., R. Condi, R. B. Foster and S. P. Hubbell (1997) Strong density- and diversity-related ef-fects help to maintain tree species diversity in a neotropical forest.  Proc. Nat. Acad, Sci. USA. 94: 1252-1257.Wright, S. J. (2002) Plant diversity in tropical forests: a review of mechanisms of species coexistence. Oecologia, 130: 1-14.Yamazaki, M., S. Iwamoto and K. Seiwa (2009) Dis-tance- and density-dependent seedling mortality caused by several fungal diseases for eight tree species co-occurring in a temperate forest.  Plant Ecology 201: 181-196.Seiwa

Is the Janzen-Connell Hypothesis Valid in Temperate Forests?

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Is the Janzen-Connell Hypothesis Valid in Temperate Forests?

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