Alien invasive species are a threat to functioning and structure of ecosystems in the world. They affect provision of goods and services of ecosystems and have also ecological and socio-economic impacts on ASAL communities. The purpose of this study was therefore to examine the socio-economic impacts of Prosopis juliflora on the livelihoods of the people of Salabani Location in Baringo County. A survey was carried out on 200 randomly selected households out of the total households living in Salabani using pretested questionnaires. The results were coded captured and analyzed using SPSS computer program. Satellite images of 2012 indicate that Prosopis juliflora covers 8555ha of land as compared to 2906 ha in 1998 representing an annual increment of 66%. Survey results showed that 95% of the households use P. juliflora as the main source of fuelwood and produce 240 bags of charcoal per household per annum. The economic benefits accruing from products associated with P. juliflora is KES 169,400 per household per annum. Economic losses from Prosopis which are associated with its thorns are estimated at KES 128,000 per household per annum. The net present value of Prosopis is 21,244.74 while the benefit / cost ratio is 3.091 hence the study concludes that utilization of Prosopis is economically viable. The study recommends that the Government of Kenya should encourage utilization of the many products and services of the tree since the residents have underutilized it. Keywords:  Invasive species, Prosopis juliflora, Economic benefits, Economic losse

E.J., Masakha,

F.N., Wegulo,

English

International Institute for Science, Technology and Education (IISTE): E-Journals

Journal of Natural Sciences Research                                                                                                                                                www.iiste.org ISSN 2224-3186 (Paper)   ISSN 2225-0921 (Online) Vol.5, No.19, 2015  41 Socioeconomic Impacts of Prosopis Juliflora on the People of Salabani Location, Marigat District, Baringo County in Kenya  Masakha, E.J.1      Wegulo, F.N.2 1. NEMA 2. Egerton University  Abstract Alien invasive species are a threat to functioning and structure of ecosystems in the world. They affect provision of goods and services of ecosystems and have also ecological and socio-economic impacts on ASAL communities. The purpose of this study was therefore to examine the socio-economic impacts of Prosopis juliflora on the livelihoods of the people of Salabani Location in Baringo County. A survey was carried out on 200 randomly selected households out of the total households living in Salabani using pretested questionnaires. The results were coded captured and analyzed using SPSS computer program. Satellite images of 2012 indicate that Prosopis juliflora covers 8555ha of land as compared to 2906 ha in 1998 representing an annual increment of 66%. Survey results showed that 95% of the households use P. juliflora as the main source of fuelwood and produce 240 bags of charcoal per household per annum. The economic benefits accruing from products associated with P. juliflora is KES 169,400 per household per annum. Economic losses from Prosopis which are associated with its thorns are estimated at KES 128,000 per household per annum. The net present value of Prosopis is 21,244.74 while the benefit / cost ratio is 3.091 hence the study concludes that utilization of Prosopis is economically viable. The study recommends that the Government of Kenya should encourage utilization of the many products and services of the tree since the residents have underutilized it. Keywords:  Invasive species, Prosopis juliflora, Economic benefits, Economic losses  Introduction Invasive alien plants can dominate ecosystems and are a growing threat to the delivery of ecosystem services (Levine et. al., 2003). In some cases the same invasive species can simultaneously provide benefits and cause negative impacts, hence finding efficient and equitable solutions can be problematic due to conflicts of interest (Sala et. al., 2006; McNeely et. al., 2011). Concern about deforestation, desertification and fuel wood shortages in the late 1970s and early 1980s prompted a wave of projects that introduced P. juliflora and other hardy tree species across the world. P. juliflora has survived where other tree species have failed and in many cases become a major nuisance. P. juliflora continues to invade millions of hectares of rangeland in South Africa, East Africa, Australia and coastal Asia (Pasiecznik et. al., 2001). In 2004 it was rated one of the world’s top 100 least wanted species (IUCN, 2004). Affected countries have devoted increasing amounts of time and funds to control invasion with limited success.  Prosopis juliflora was introduced in Kenya in 1973 in Bamburi, Mombasa District, Tana River District, and Turkana District. Later in 1983, the plant was introduced in Marigat in Baringo District during the Baringo Fuel Wood Afforestation Extension Project by the World Bank, FAO and Government of Kenya. The purpose was to mitigate desertification and fuel wood shortages in the ASALs (Pimentel et. al., 2000). The plant was preferred due to its resilience, drought tolerance, fast growth, source of fodder and fuel wood (Meyerhoff, 1991). It was easily imported into Kenya due to the poor phytosanitary regulations and enforcement policies of the 1960s to 1980s. Further planting of the tree was stopped in the early 1990s when the weedy characteristics of the plant were noticed (Choge et. al., 2002). In 2007, the affected communities in Marigat District sot compensation from the Kenya Government for introducing what they termed a ‘dryland demon’. The purpose of this study therefore was to investigate the socioeconomic impacts of this plant on the community living in Salabani Location.  Methodology The study used pretested questionnaires as a research tool to interview 200 households randomly selected from a sampling frame of 2000 households living in Salabani Location. The independent variable was invasion of Prosopis and the dependent variables were economic costs and benefits.  Study Area Salabani Location lies between longitude 0045’N, 0030’N and latitude 350 45’E, 3600’E. It is located about 15 km from Endao bridge junction along Marigat - Kambi Samaki road in the Ilchamus (Njemps) plains between Lake Baringo and Lake Bogoria. The local community relies mainly on pastoralism. Salabani experiences severe soil erosion due to poor vegetation cover and poor soil structure (GoK, 2002). Soils are mainly clay loams with alluvial deposits derived from tertiary / quaternary volcanic and pyroclastic rock sediments that have been Journal of Natural Sciences Research                                                                                                                                                www.iiste.org ISSN 2224-3186 (Paper)   ISSN 2225-0921 (Online) Vol.5, No.19, 2015  42 weathered and eroded from the Tugen highlands. The soils contain high levels of phosphorous, potassium, calcium and magnesium and low levels of nitrogen and carbon. The soils range from acidic to slightly alkaline (GoK, 2002).  These lowlands receive 600 mm of rainfall annually which is bimodal, low, erratic and unreliable. Long rains start from March to July while short rains between September and November. The mean annual maximum temperature lies between 25°C and 30°C and minimum temperatures from 16–18°C (GoK, 2002). The hottest months range from January to March. The flood plains lie between agro-ecological zone IV and V.  The ASAL vegetation is characterized by P. juliflora and Acacia woodlots (mainly A. tortilis) in association with Boscia spp., Balanites aegyptica and bushes of Salvadora persica. High evapo-transpiration rates and low variable rainfall create water scarcities that limit intensive agricultural land use (GoK, 2002). The population density is relatively low 21 persons per square kilometer, with a total population of 40,985 people in Marigat division and 2000 households in Salabani location (GoK, 2009).  Figure 1: Map of Salabani Location, Kenya Source: Moi University, Geography Department 2012  Data Collection Data was collected from 200 households randomly selected from the total households living in Salabani Location using pretested questionnaires which yielded a reliability coefficient of 95%. Satellite images of 2012 and 1998 were used to compare the spread of Prosopis in the study area.  Data Analysis Data collected was coded and analyzed using SPSS computer program and cost benefit Analysis performed.   Results and Discussions Satellite images of 2012 indicate that Prosopis juliflora had spread to 8555 ha of land in an area between Lake Bogoria and Lake Baringo in Marigat division from a meager 2906 ha reported in 1998. This constitutes 66% annual spread of Prosopis or 403 ha annual increment an indication that the weed is fast spreading in the study area (plates 1 and 5). This is because invasive species do not require special conditions to germinate and out-compete native species (Raghubanshi et. al. 2005). They reproduce sexually and asexually, seed profusely and Journal of Natural Sciences Research                                                                                                                                                www.iiste.org ISSN 2224-3186 (Paper)   ISSN 2225-0921 (Online) Vol.5, No.19, 2015  43 have deep rooting systems (Pasiecznik 2001). It was declared a noxious weed in Ethiopia (Catterson, 2003).  Plate 1: Satellite image showing spread of Prosopis 2012 Source DRSRS 2012 Survey results indicate that 95% of the population use P. juliflora as the main source of firewood. On average each household produces 240 bags of charcoal per annum. 85% of the women interviewed noted that they have access to plenty of firewood which was previously a scarce resource. This is in agreement with a similar study done in Ethiopia (Catterson 2003).  This has reduced the time and distances they walk in search of firewood. Findings from KEFRI indicate that fuelwood from prosopis has a high calorific value of 4.2 Kcal/gram to 4.8 Kcal/gram (Choge 2002).  Most of the people interviewed observed that the plant has helped control desert storms of the early 1980s. The locals harvest 240 litres of honey per household per year. P. juliflora is a highly flowering evergreen plant with bright  yellow flowers that easily attract bees (Pasiecznik  et. al. 2001). On average each household in Salabani location uses 250 backloads of  firewood per annum and 240 bags of charcoal per annum. Pods are used as animal fodder (plate3). The total economic benefits accruing from products associated with P. juliflora is KES 169,400 per household per annum (Table 1).  Table 1:  Economic benefits of P. juliflora per household/year in Salabani Economic use Unit Quantity  KES. (Per year) Firewood Back loads 250 5,000 Poles Numbers 120 4,800 Fencing Numbers 100 3,600 Charcoal Sacks 240 120,000 Fodder Kg 600 12,000 Medicine Kg 0 0 Honey Litres 240 24,000 Food Kg 0 0 Timber Numbers 0 0 Wood carvings Numbers 0 0 Ropes Meters 0 0 Total   169,400 Journal of Natural Sciences Research                                                                                                                                                www.iiste.org ISSN 2224-3186 (Paper)   ISSN 2225-0921 (Online) Vol.5, No.19, 2015  44 Figure 1: Rank score of the relative importance of various uses of P. juliflora in Salabani location Source: Survey Data 2009                       Source: Survey Data, 2009    Economic costs of P. juliflora Economic costs of P. juliflora are associated with injuries caused by the thorns of the weed to man and livestock. The thorns of the weed pierce hooves of animals limiting their movement in search of pasture and water. The thorns pierce and lower quality of the hides and skins. This increases the cost of treatment. In particular goats lose their teeth probably due to high sugar content of the plants’ pods hence they starve to death (plate 4). P. juliflora pods have high sugar content which enhances activity of rumen bacterial cellulase that causes teeth decay in goats leading to high mortality cases (Pasiecznik et. al. 2001).   00.511.522.533.544.55FirewoodPolesFencingCharcoalPodsMedicineHoneyFood…Animal fodderOrnamentalTimberWood carvingsRopesRehabilitationRank score/5Journal of Natural Sciences Research                                                                                                                                                www.iiste.org ISSN 2224-3186 (Paper)   ISSN 2225-0921 (Online) Vol.5, No.19, 2015  45  Plate 4; Goats teeth decay      Plate 5: House invaded by Prosopis  Source: Survey data 2009      Source: Survey data 2009 The total cost associated with the plant is estimated at KES 128,000 per household (Table 4). 39% of the respondents reported that P. juliflora led to a reduction of grazing land, 45% reported that the thorny thickets prevent animal movement, 10% reported that it blocks infrastructure (plate 5), while 8% reported that it hosts crop pests and 5% have migrated (Table 2). Table 2: Frequency distribution of Economic Loses of P. juliflora Economic use Frequency Reported Cases Percent Decreased woodlands 21 10.5 Injury to animals 65 32.5 Reduced biodiversity 44 22 Reduced crop production 77 38.5 Decreased grazing land 78 39 Restricted movement Blocked infrastructure Crop pests Thorns puncture tyres Host predators Migration 90 20 16 194 150 10 45 10 8 97 75 5 Source: Survey data. 2009  Table 3: Economic Losses incurred per household per year due to P. juliflora  Impact Number per year Estimated costs KES Cattle death 2 40,000 Goat deaths 8 24,000 Livestock treatments 15 15,000 Cost of clearing P. juliflora 600 Man hours 30,000 Repair of bicycle tyre punctures 150 3,000 Cost of treatment (human health) 4 16,000 Total  Economic loss   128,000 Source: Survey Data, 2009 The weed has also blocked access routes to watering points on Lake Baringo and River Endao, Salabani primary, Salabani secondary school and to Marigat town hence residents have to move for longer distances in search of water or access schools and markets. However no monetary value was attached to this inconvenience. 10% of those interviewed reported cases of their relatives having relocated to other areas due to the invasion.  The net present value of P. Juliflora is 21, 244.74, the benefit/cost ratio is 3.091. Since the NPV is greater than zero, the Benefit / Cost ratio is greater than one, internal rate of return is greater than the discount rate the study concludes that it is economically viable to grow P. juliflora in Salabani. However some environmental costs and benefits are intangible hence could not be assigned monetary value which could affect the exact monetary economic benefits and costs.  Conclusions Economic benefits associated with utilization of products from this tree outweigh economic losses. Pastoralists rely on their livestock than any other source of income hence they perceive the tree negatively. In view of the many potential uses of P. juliflora all efforts should be made to exploit these products and services. The Journal of Natural Sciences Research                                                                                                                                                www.iiste.org ISSN 2224-3186 (Paper)   ISSN 2225-0921 (Online) Vol.5, No.19, 2015  46 community has underutilized the tree Despite charcoal business being a multimillion enterprise.   Recommendations The government of Kenya should enhance commercial charcoal production from Prosopis by issuing movement permits which is a trade barrier. It should fast track establishment of a power plant to generate steam energy from Prosopis, introduce non-invasive and thorn less Prosopis chilensis alongside commercial utilization of P. juliflora. The government should create awareness among communities on other potential uses of the plant like animal feeds, wax and medicinal value. The local community should enhance utilization of P. juliflora through charcoal production, sale of firewood and poles. The community should stop burning P. juliflora as it encourages re-sprouting from damaged stems, scarifies the dormant seeds, removes all valuable native plants from the ground and contributes to global warming.   Acknowledgement The authors wish to sincerely thank Egerton University for the opportunity to carry out this research and DRSRS for providing satellite images and interpretation of imagery data.  References Catterson, T. (2003): Strategic integrated plan in the Sudan, 2003-2005 environmental threats and opportunities assessment: USAID/REDSO/NPC and the USAID Sudan Task Force. Washington, March 2003. Choge S.K., et.al. (2002): The Status and Impact of Prosopis spp. in Kenya: KEFRI, Nairobi, Kenya. 59 pp GoK (2002)District Development Plan Baringo, Government printers, Nairobi. GoK (2009):National Housing and Population census report, Government printers, Nairobi Lenacuru, C. I (2006): Impacts of Prosopis species in Baringo district. Proceedings of a workshop on integrated management of Prosopis species in Kenya. pp. 41-47. Levine, J.M., et.al. (2003): Mechanisms underlying the impacts of exotic plant invasions. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B. 270:775–781 McNeely, J.A., et.al. (ed) (2011):. A Global Strategy on Invasive Alien Species. Gland, Switzerland: International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. Pimentel, D. et.al (2000).: Environmental and economic costs of non-indigenous species in the United States. BioScience. 50(1):.53-65 Meyerhoff, E. (1991). Taking Stock: Changing livelihoods in an Agro-pastoral Community. Acts Press, Africa Centre for Technology Studies, Nairobi. PP 58. Pasiecznik N.M., et.al. (2001).The P. juliflora – P. pallida Complex: A Monograph. HYDRA Coventry UK.  Patel, K. J. (1986): The Role of Prosopis in Water Land Development: Jivrajbhai Patel Agro- cores Centre, Surendrabag, and Gujarat, India.  476 - 480. Pimentel, D. et. al. (2000): Environmental and economic costs of non-indigenous species in the United States. BioScience. 50(1).53-65 Raghubanshi, A. S. et.al. (2005): Invasive alien species and Biodiversity in India: Current Science. 88(4): 1-12. Sala, O.E., et.al.(2006):Global biodiversity scenarios for the year 2100. BioScience. 287: 1770–1774 Tewari, J.C., et.al. (2000): Managing P. juliflora: A Technical Manual, CAZRI, Jodhpur, India and HYDRA Coventry, U. K. Van Wilgen, B.W., Le Maitre, D.C. and Cowling, R. M. (1998): Ecosystem services, efficiency, sustainability and equity: South Africa’s working for Water programme. Trends in ecology and Evolution. 13. 378. 

Socioeconomic Impacts of Prosopis Juliflora on the People of Salabani Location, Marigat District, Baringo County in Kenya

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Socioeconomic Impacts of Prosopis Juliflora on the People of Salabani Location, Marigat District, Baringo County in Kenya

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