A common misconception about bullying is that this phenomenon does not result in negative long-term consequences. In reality, children and adolescents who are involved in bullying face a host of psychological difficulties. Oppositional defiant disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and depression have been identified as mental health disorders that are associated with bullying

Swearer Napolitano, Susan M.

English

DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska

University of Nebraska - Lincoln DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln Educational Psychology Papers and Publications Educational Psychology, Department of 11-10-2008 Bullying and Depression Susan M. Swearer Napolitano University of Nebraska-Lincoln, sswearernapolitano1@unl.edu Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/edpsychpapers  Part of the Educational Psychology Commons Swearer Napolitano, Susan M., "Bullying and Depression" (2008). Educational Psychology Papers and Publications. 134. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/edpsychpapers/134 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Educational Psychology, Department of at DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. It has been accepted for inclusion in Educational Psychology Papers and Publications by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. Close Window Print WindowAuthor: Susan SwearerSource: Bullying Special Edition ContributorA common misconception about bullying is that this phenomenon does not result in negative long-termconsequences. In reality, children and adolescents who are involved in bullying face a host of psychologicaldifficulties. Oppositional defiant disorder (8), attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and depression havebeen identified as mental health disorders that are associated with bullying (3).  Consequently, it is vital that parents and teachers become familiar with the signs of depression in youth andunderstand the factors that may be triggers for depressive symptoms in bullies, victims, and bully-victims (i.e.,individuals who bully others and are also the targets of bullying). Once the connection between bullying anddepression is understood, individuals will be better prepared to select interventions that combat both bullyingbehaviors and depression.What is Depression?According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV-TR) there are threedepressive disorders (1):Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) is characterized by one or more Major Depressive Episodes, whichare periods of depressed mood or loss of interest that endure for at least two weeks at a time (18). Other symptoms of MDD include loss of energy, feelings of worthlessness, diminished concentration,suicidal ideation, and changes in sleep, weight, or psychomotor activity. Dysthymic Disorder (DD) is a chronic, mild form of depression that includes symptoms such asdepressed mood, irritability, and two other depressive symptoms.  DDepressive Disorder Not Otherwise Specified (D-NOS) is diagnosed when an individual’s depressivesymptoms do not meet the criteria of the previous two disorders.  Although prevalence rates for depression in children and adolescents vary (18), they seem to fall between1.6% and 8.9% (2).  With respect to developmental trends, depression rates increase with age and risedramatically during adolescence (19). Based on the prevalence of depression in youth, it is important toexamine depression more thoroughly in the context of bullying.Depression in Bullies, Victims, and Bully/VictimsEducation.com - print http://www.education.com/print/bullying-depression/1 of 4 5/1/2012 1:10 PMSwearer in Bullying in School and Online, special issue of Education.com (Nov. 10, 2008). Copyright 2008, Education.com. Used by permission.Victims of bullying are particularly at-risk for experiencing depression.  Victims have been found to do thefollowing:possess typically low self-esteem view themselves in a negative manner (10 & 11), which canultimately lead to depression.  are associated with depression and unhappiness at school (14) and low self-worth (3).  Additionally, bullies and bully-victims may also experience depression. Studies have found the followingtendencies in bullies and bully-victims: had higher levels of depressive symptoms than victims and individuals who were not involved inbullying (17)had comorbid depression with other disorders (e.g., oppositional or conduct disorders for bullies) (8)were the most impaired subgroup of students involved in bullying with respect to mental health issues(17 & 7)Along with depressive symptomatology, there appears to be a relationship between bullying and suicidalideation. Findings indicate that individuals who are involved in bullying are at risk for developing depressionand suicidal thinking, regardless of their status. Studies, for example, have found the following:A larger proportion of adolescent bully-victims and victims reported suicidal ideation compared tobullies and uninvolved youth (7)Bullies and victims scored significantly higher than uninvolved peers on measures of depressivesymptoms and suicidal thoughts (12) Explaining the Link between Bullying and DepressionSeveral factors impact the relationship between bullying and depression. For instance: With respect to victims, some studies suggest that targets of bullying inadvertently set themselves up forbullying through their passivity. Thus, some victims are unlikely to report victimization or to retaliate,which makes them appealing targets for bullies (15 & 10).  Due to the correlation between depression and bullying others (1), a possible explanation for bullyingbehavior is that bullies engage in aggressive behaviors to compensate for negative feelings or low-selfesteem (11). School personnel should be aware of the link between bullying and depressive symptoms. For instance, peersupport can moderate the relationship between bullying and depression (6).Treatment Approaches and ConsiderationsIt is apparent that bullying is not a normal rite of passage which all youth experience withoutconsequences. Unfortunately, involvement in bullying can result in mental health disorders such asdepression. Depressed children and adolescents who are involved in bullying would benefit from evidence-based, individualized interventions that address their unique needs.  Bullying interventions should provideyouth with effective strategies to cope with the bullying itself as well as manage internalizing symptoms (17).Cognitive-behavioral approaches may be ideal for treating depression in bullies, victims, or bully-victimssince Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT) is considered a well-established treatment for depression (4). Forinstance, the Bullying Intervention Program (BIP) (16) can be used in place of other strategies that arecommonly used to deter bullying (e.g., suspensions), which tend to be ineffective (5). The BIP is designed forstudents who bully others and is conducted in a one-on-one format. It consists of three components that areEducation.com - print http://www.education.com/print/bullying-depression/2 of 4 5/1/2012 1:10 PMcompleted during a single three-hour session: 1) assessment; 2) psychoeducation; and 3) feedback. Also, the BIP is advantageous due to its individualized nature, in that the session’s activities and therapist’srecommendations are tailored to meet the unique needs of the student. In general, it is vital to consider thisinformation while selecting and developing interventions that reduce bullying behaviors and alleviate thepsychological repercussions associated with victimization.References1. American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th Ed.,Text Revision). Washington, DC: Author.2. Angold, A., & Costello, E. J. (2001). The epidemiology of depression in children and adolescents. In I. M.Goodyer (Ed.), The depressed child and adolescent (2nd ed., pp. 143-178). New York: Cambridge UniversityPress.3. Callaghan, S., & Joseph, S. (1995). Self-concept and peer victimization among schoolchildren. Personalityand Individual Differences, 18(1), 161-163. DOI: 10.1016/0191-8869(94)00127-E.4. Compton, S. N., March, J. S., Brent, D., Albano, A. M., Weersing, V. R., & Curry, J.(2004). Cognitive-behavioral psychotherapy for anxiety and depressive disorders in children and adolescents:An evidence-based medicine review. Journal of American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 43,930-959. DOI: 10.1097/01.chi.0000127589.57468.bf.5. Espelage, D. L., & Swearer, S. M. (2008). Current perspectives on linking school bullying research toeffective prevention strategies. In T. W. Miller (Ed.), School Violence and Primary Prevention (pp.335-353). New York: Springer.6. Holt, M. K., & Espelage, D. L. (2007). Perceived social support among bullies, victims, and bully-victims.Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 36, 984-994. DOI: 10.1007/s10964-006-9153-3.7. Ivarsson, T., Broberg, A. G., Arvidsson, T., & Gillberg, C. (2005). Bullying in adolescence: Psychiatricproblems in victims and bullies as measured by the youth self report (YSR) and depression self-rating scale(DSRS). Nordic Journal of Psychiatry, 59(5), 365-373. DOI: 10.1080/08039480500227816.8. Kumpulainen, K., Rasanen, E., & Puura, K. (2001). Psychiatric disorders and the use of mental healthservices among children involved in bullying. Aggressive Behavior, 27, 102-110. DOI: 10.1002/ab.3.9. Mufson, L., & Pollack Dorta, K. (2003). Interpersonal psychotherapy for depressed adolescents. In A. E.Kazdin & J. R. Weisz (Eds.). Evidence-Based Psychotherapies for Children and Adolescents. New York:Guilford Press.10. Olweus, D. (1995). Bullying or peer abuse at school: Facts and intervention. Current Directions inPsychological Science, 4, 196-200. DOI: 10.1111/1467-8721.ep10772640.11. O’Moore, M., & Kirkham, C. (2001). Self-esteem and its relationship to bullying behavior. AggressiveBehavior, 27(4), 269-283. DOI: 10.1002/ab.1010.12. Roland, E. (2002a). Bullying, depressive symptoms and suicidal thoughts. Educational Research, 44(1),55-67. DOI: 10.1080/00131880110107351.Education.com - print http://www.education.com/print/bullying-depression/3 of 4 5/1/2012 1:10 PM13. Roland, E. (2002b). Aggression, depression, and bullying others. Aggressive Behaviors, 28, 198-206.DOI: 10.1002/ab.90022.14. Slee, P. T. (1995). Peer victimization and its relationship to depression among australian primary schoolstudents. Personality and Individual Differences, 18(1), 57-62. DOI: 10.1016/0191-8869(94)00114-8.15. Smokowski, P. R., & Holland Kopasz, K. (2005). Bullying in school: An overview of types, effects, familycharacteristics, and intervention strategies. Children & Schools, 27(2), 101-110.16. Swearer, S. M. & Givens, J. E. (2006). Designing an Alternative to Suspension for Middle School Bullies.Paper presented at the annual convention of the National Association of School Psychologists, Anaheim, CA.17. Swearer, S. M., Song, S. Y., Tam Cary, P., Eagle, J. W., & Mickelson, W. T. (2001). Psychosocialcorrelates in bullying and victimization: Relationship between depression, anxiety, and bully/victim status.Journal of Emotional Abuse, 2(2&3), 95-121. DOI: 10.1300/J135v02n02_07. 18. Swearer, S. M., Wang, C., Givens, J., Berry, B., & Reinemann, D. (in press). Mood and depressivedisorders in children and adolescents. Chapter to appear in S. Goldstein & C. R. Reynolds (Eds.), Handbookof Neurodevelopmental and Genetic Disorders in Children, 2nd edition. New York: Guilford Press.19. Weisz, J. R., Southam-Gerow, M. A., Gordis, E. B., & Connor-Smith, J. (2003). Primary and secondarycontrol enhancement training for youth depression: Applying the deployment-focused model of treatmentdevelopment and testing. In A. E. Kazdin & J. R. Weisz (Eds.), Evidence-Based Psychotherapies forChildren and Adolescents. New York: Guilford Press.© Copyright 2006-2011 Education.com All Rights Reserved.http://www.education.com/reference/article/bullying-depression/Education.com - print http://www.education.com/print/bullying-depression/4 of 4 5/1/2012 1:10 PM

Bullying and Depression

UNL | Libraries

University of Nebraska - Lincoln 
DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln 
Educational Psychology Papers and 
Publications Educational Psychology, Department of 
11-10-2008 
Bullying and Depression 
Susan M. Swearer Napolitano 
University of Nebraska-Lincoln, sswearernapolitano1@unl.edu 
Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/edpsychpapers 
 Part of the Educational Psychology Commons 
Swearer Napolitano, Susan M., "Bullying and Depression" (2008). Educational Psychology Papers and 
Publications. 134. 
https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/edpsychpapers/134 
This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Educational Psychology, Department of at 
DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. It has been accepted for inclusion in Educational Psychology 
Papers and Publications by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. 
Close Window Print Window
Author: Susan Swearer
Source: Bullying Special Edition Contributor
A common misconception about bullying is that this phenomenon does not result in negative long-term
consequences. In reality, children and adolescents who are involved in bullying face a host of psychological
difficulties. Oppositional defiant disorder (8), attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and depression have
been identified as mental health disorders that are associated with bullying (3).  
Consequently, it is vital that parents and teachers become familiar with the signs of depression in youth and
understand the factors that may be triggers for depressive symptoms in bullies, victims, and bully-victims (i.e.,
individuals who bully others and are also the targets of bullying). Once the connection between bullying and
depression is understood, individuals will be better prepared to select interventions that combat both bullying
behaviors and depression.
What is Depression?
According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV-TR) there are three
depressive disorders (1):
Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) is characterized by one or more Major Depressive Episodes, which
are periods of depressed mood or loss of interest that endure for at least two weeks at a time (18).
 Other symptoms of MDD include loss of energy, feelings of worthlessness, diminished concentration,
suicidal ideation, and changes in sleep, weight, or psychomotor activity. 
Dysthymic Disorder (DD) is a chronic, mild form of depression that includes symptoms such as
depressed mood, irritability, and two other depressive symptoms.  D
Depressive Disorder Not Otherwise Specified (D-NOS) is diagnosed when an individual’s depressive
symptoms do not meet the criteria of the previous two disorders.  
Although prevalence rates for depression in children and adolescents vary (18), they seem to fall between
1.6% and 8.9% (2).  With respect to developmental trends, depression rates increase with age and rise
dramatically during adolescence (19). Based on the prevalence of depression in youth, it is important to
examine depression more thoroughly in the context of bullying.
Depression in Bullies, Victims, and Bully/Victims
Education.com - print http://www.education.com/print/bullying-depression/
1 of 4 5/1/2012 1:10 PM
Swearer in Bullying in School and Online, special issue of Education.com (Nov. 10, 2008). 
Copyright 2008, Education.com. Used by permission.
Victims of bullying are particularly at-risk for experiencing depression.  Victims have been found to do the
following:
possess typically low self-esteem view themselves in a negative manner (10 & 11), which can
ultimately lead to depression.  
are associated with depression and unhappiness at school (14) and low self-worth (3).  
Additionally, bullies and bully-victims may also experience depression. Studies have found the following
tendencies in bullies and bully-victims: 
had higher levels of depressive symptoms than victims and individuals who were not involved in
bullying (17)
had comorbid depression with other disorders (e.g., oppositional or conduct disorders for bullies) (8)
were the most impaired subgroup of students involved in bullying with respect to mental health issues
(17 & 7)
Along with depressive symptomatology, there appears to be a relationship between bullying and suicidal
ideation. Findings indicate that individuals who are involved in bullying are at risk for developing depression
and suicidal thinking, regardless of their status. Studies, for example, have found the following:
A larger proportion of adolescent bully-victims and victims reported suicidal ideation compared to
bullies and uninvolved youth (7)
Bullies and victims scored significantly higher than uninvolved peers on measures of depressive
symptoms and suicidal thoughts (12) 
Explaining the Link between Bullying and Depression
Several factors impact the relationship between bullying and depression. For instance: 
With respect to victims, some studies suggest that targets of bullying inadvertently set themselves up for
bullying through their passivity. Thus, some victims are unlikely to report victimization or to retaliate,
which makes them appealing targets for bullies (15 & 10).  
Due to the correlation between depression and bullying others (1), a possible explanation for bullying
behavior is that bullies engage in aggressive behaviors to compensate for negative feelings or low-self
esteem (11). 
School personnel should be aware of the link between bullying and depressive symptoms. For instance, peer
support can moderate the relationship between bullying and depression (6).
Treatment Approaches and Considerations
It is apparent that bullying is not a normal rite of passage which all youth experience without
consequences. Unfortunately, involvement in bullying can result in mental health disorders such as
depression. Depressed children and adolescents who are involved in bullying would benefit from evidence-
based, individualized interventions that address their unique needs.  Bullying interventions should provide
youth with effective strategies to cope with the bullying itself as well as manage internalizing symptoms (17).
Cognitive-behavioral approaches may be ideal for treating depression in bullies, victims, or bully-victims
since Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT) is considered a well-established treatment for depression (4). For
instance, the Bullying Intervention Program (BIP) (16) can be used in place of other strategies that are
commonly used to deter bullying (e.g., suspensions), which tend to be ineffective (5). The BIP is designed for
students who bully others and is conducted in a one-on-one format. It consists of three components that are
Education.com - print http://www.education.com/print/bullying-depression/
2 of 4 5/1/2012 1:10 PM
completed during a single three-hour session: 1) assessment; 2) psychoeducation; and 3) feedback. 
Also, the BIP is advantageous due to its individualized nature, in that the session’s activities and therapist’s
recommendations are tailored to meet the unique needs of the student. In general, it is vital to consider this
information while selecting and developing interventions that reduce bullying behaviors and alleviate the
psychological repercussions associated with victimization.
References
1. American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th Ed.,
Text Revision). Washington, DC: Author.
2. Angold, A., & Costello, E. J. (2001). The epidemiology of depression in children and adolescents. In I. M.
Goodyer (Ed.), The depressed child and adolescent (2nd ed., pp. 143-178). New York: Cambridge University
Press.
3. Callaghan, S., & Joseph, S. (1995). Self-concept and peer victimization among schoolchildren. Personality
and Individual Differences, 18(1), 161-163. DOI: 10.1016/0191-8869(94)00127-E.
4. Compton, S. N., March, J. S., Brent, D., Albano, A. M., Weersing, V. R., & Curry, J.
(2004). Cognitive-behavioral psychotherapy for anxiety and depressive disorders in children and adolescents:
An evidence-based medicine review. Journal of American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 43,
930-959. DOI: 10.1097/01.chi.0000127589.57468.bf.
5. Espelage, D. L., & Swearer, S. M. (2008). Current perspectives on linking school bullying research to
effective prevention strategies. In T. W. Miller (Ed.), School Violence and Primary Prevention (pp.
335-353). New York: Springer.
6. Holt, M. K., & Espelage, D. L. (2007). Perceived social support among bullies, victims, and bully-victims.
Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 36, 984-994. DOI: 10.1007/s10964-006-9153-3.
7. Ivarsson, T., Broberg, A. G., Arvidsson, T., & Gillberg, C. (2005). Bullying in adolescence: Psychiatric
problems in victims and bullies as measured by the youth self report (YSR) and depression self-rating scale
(DSRS). Nordic Journal of Psychiatry, 59(5), 365-373. DOI: 10.1080/08039480500227816.
8. Kumpulainen, K., Rasanen, E., & Puura, K. (2001). Psychiatric disorders and the use of mental health
services among children involved in bullying. Aggressive Behavior, 27, 102-110. DOI: 10.1002/ab.3.
9. Mufson, L., & Pollack Dorta, K. (2003). Interpersonal psychotherapy for depressed adolescents. In A. E.
Kazdin & J. R. Weisz (Eds.). Evidence-Based Psychotherapies for Children and Adolescents. New York:
Guilford Press.
10. Olweus, D. (1995). Bullying or peer abuse at school: Facts and intervention. Current Directions in
Psychological Science, 4, 196-200. DOI: 10.1111/1467-8721.ep10772640.
11. O’Moore, M., & Kirkham, C. (2001). Self-esteem and its relationship to bullying behavior. Aggressive
Behavior, 27(4), 269-283. DOI: 10.1002/ab.1010.
12. Roland, E. (2002a). Bullying, depressive symptoms and suicidal thoughts. Educational Research, 44(1),
55-67. DOI: 10.1080/00131880110107351.
Education.com - print http://www.education.com/print/bullying-depression/
3 of 4 5/1/2012 1:10 PM
13. Roland, E. (2002b). Aggression, depression, and bullying others. Aggressive Behaviors, 28, 198-206.
DOI: 10.1002/ab.90022.
14. Slee, P. T. (1995). Peer victimization and its relationship to depression among australian primary school
students. Personality and Individual Differences, 18(1), 57-62. DOI: 10.1016/0191-8869(94)00114-8.
15. Smokowski, P. R., & Holland Kopasz, K. (2005). Bullying in school: An overview of types, effects, family
characteristics, and intervention strategies. Children & Schools, 27(2), 101-110.
16. Swearer, S. M. & Givens, J. E. (2006). Designing an Alternative to Suspension for Middle School Bullies.
Paper presented at the annual convention of the National Association of School Psychologists, Anaheim, CA.
17. Swearer, S. M., Song, S. Y., Tam Cary, P., Eagle, J. W., & Mickelson, W. T. (2001). Psychosocial
correlates in bullying and victimization: Relationship between depression, anxiety, and bully/victim status.
Journal of Emotional Abuse, 2(2&3), 95-121. DOI: 10.1300/J135v02n02_07. 
18. Swearer, S. M., Wang, C., Givens, J., Berry, B., & Reinemann, D. (in press). Mood and depressive
disorders in children and adolescents. Chapter to appear in S. Goldstein & C. R. Reynolds (Eds.), Handbook
of Neurodevelopmental and Genetic Disorders in Children, 2nd edition. New York: Guilford Press.
19. Weisz, J. R., Southam-Gerow, M. A., Gordis, E. B., & Connor-Smith, J. (2003). Primary and secondary
control enhancement training for youth depression: Applying the deployment-focused model of treatment
development and testing. In A. E. Kazdin & J. R. Weisz (Eds.), Evidence-Based Psychotherapies for
Children and Adolescents. New York: Guilford Press.
© Copyright 2006-2011 Education.com All Rights Reserved.
http://www.education.com/reference/article/bullying-depression/
Education.com - print http://www.education.com/print/bullying-depression/
4 of 4 5/1/2012 1:10 PM


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