When disturbed, blackbird/ starling roost sites can be sources of locally severe outbreaks of histoplasmosis; therefore decontamination with formalin is sometimes prudent. We describe the use of a $5000 sprinkler system for spraying formalin on a Histoplasma capsulatum-infested roost site. This system precludes direct worker involvement in the application of this hazardous chemical to the area. Analysis of soil samples collected and cultured both before and after formalin treatment confirmed the eradication of H. capsulatum from the 1.3 ha site. Cost was approximately $17,000 with sprinkler system provided at no charge

Gayle, C.H.

Hume, C.E.

Pass, T., II

Pruitt, J.R.

Stickley, A.R., Jr.

English

DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska

University of Nebraska - Lincoln DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln 3 - Third Eastern Wildlife Damage Control Conference (1987) Eastern Wildlife Damage Control Conferences October 1987 DECONTAMINATION OF A HISTOPLASMA CAPSULATUM-INFESTED BLACKBIRD ROOST: USE OF A SPRINKLER SYSTEM TO APPLY FORMALIN A.R. Stickley Jr. USDA-APHIS-ADC J.R. Pruitt Warren County Health Dept. C.E. Hume Warren County Health Dept T. Pass II Morehead State University, Morehead, KY C.H. Gayle Kentucky Dept. Agriculture, Division of Pest & Noxious Weed Control Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/ewdcc3  Part of the Environmental Health and Protection Commons Stickley, A.R. Jr.; Pruitt, J.R.; Hume, C.E.; Pass, T. II; and Gayle, C.H., "DECONTAMINATION OF A HISTOPLASMA CAPSULATUM-INFESTED BLACKBIRD ROOST: USE OF A SPRINKLER SYSTEM TO APPLY FORMALIN" (1987). 3 - Third Eastern Wildlife Damage Control Conference (1987). 59. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/ewdcc3/59 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Eastern Wildlife Damage Control Conferences at DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. It has been accepted for inclusion in 3 - Third Eastern Wildlife Damage Control Conference (1987) by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. DECONTAMINATION OF A HISTOPLASMA CAPSULATUM-INFESTED BLACKBIRD ROOST:USE OF A SPRINKLER SYSTEM TO APPLY FORMALIN1/ ?/by A. R. Stickley, Jr.,-'4/j. R. Pruitir,T. Pass II,-, and C. H.- C5/E«Gayle5ABSTRACTWhen disturbed, blackbird/starling roost sites can be sourcesof locally severe outbreaks ofhistoplasmosis; therefore decontami-nation with formalin is sometimesprudent. We describe the use of a$5000 sprinkler system for sprayingformalin on a Histoplasmacapsulatum-infested roost site.This system precludes direct workerinvolvement in the application ofthis hazardous chemical to the area.Analysis of soil samples collectedand cultured both before and afterformalin treatment confirmed theeradication of H^. capsulatumfrom the 1.3 ha site. Cost wasapproximately $17,000 with sprinklersystem provided at no charge.INTRODUCTIONHistoplasmosis-infested blackbird(Icterinae) and European starling(Sturnus vulgaris) roosts in thecentral Mississippi River Valley andtributaries are known to be sourcesof low-grade histoplasmosis infec-tions in local communities (Chin etal. 1970, Tosh et al. 1970, Chick etal. 1980). These roost sites canalso be sources of locally severeoutbreaks of histoplasmosis whenthey are disturbed (D'Alessio et al.1965, Tosh et al. 1966a, Latham etI/USDA-APHIS-ADC Research, KentuckyResearch Station, 334 15th Street,Bowling Green, KY 421012_/Warren County Health Dept., 1133Adams Street, Bowling Green, KY421013_/Deceased4_/Professor of Microbiology,Morehead State Univers i ty , Morehead,KY 40351[[/Kentucky Dept. Agriculture,Division of Pest & Noxious WeedControl, Frankfort, KY 40601al. 1980). Therefore, if disruptionof h[. capsulatum-infested sitesis planned, then decontamination isprudent. To date, the only knowneffective decontaminant is formalin(U.S. Dept. of Health, Education, andWelfare, undated, HistoplasmosisControl). It was first used as suchin 1966 (Tosh et al. 1966b), and hassince been used occasionally for thispurpose (Bartlett et al. 1982). Pastformalin application techniquesrequired worker-held hoses, whichwere disagreeable and dangerous tothe personnel involved (formalin is asevere irritant and known carcinogen{U.S. Dept. of Health, Education, andWelfare, undated, Formaldehyde}). Wedescribe the application of formalinto a H_. capsulatum-infested roostsite via a network of irrigationpipes and sprinklers.Site Description, Materials, andMethodsThe roost site was a 2 ha area inthe middle, of a 20 ha old field onthe north side of the SpringhillSubdivision 1000 m west of KentuckyHighway 68-80 in Bowling Green,Kentucky. Prior to January 1980,eastern red cedars (Juniperusvirginiana) predominated here. The1.2 ha western part of the site con-tained young red cedars (10-15 cmDBH), whereas mature ones (23-36 cmDBH) occupied the 0.8 ha easternsection. Wintering blackbirds andstarlings began to occupy both partssometime before the winter of 1978-79 when their numbers reached approx-imately 1 million. Occupancy was cutshort the next winter (January 1980)when the 1.2 ha western side of theroost was bulldozed (Stickley et al.1986).Because a case of histoplasmosishad been diagnosed in a resident ofthe Springhill Subdivision, 40 sur-171face soil samples were taken fromthe 2-ha site in November 1979 andcultured for the presence of H_.capsulatum at Morehead StateUniversity, Morehead, Kentucky.Smith's modified oil flotation tech-nique (Smith 1971) was followed inthe soil sample processing exceptthat: 1) the antibiotics were notadded until after the soil sampleshad been strained into the blender;and 2) 5 mg/ml of cycloheximide wasalso added to the suspension. Mediapreparation differed from Smith'stechnique only in that cycloheximide(0.5 q/1 , dissolved in acetone) wasadded to the media before auto-claving. Mouse injection andnecropsy techniques were asdescribed by Smith (1971). Theresult was that 7 of the 10 samplestaken from the 0.8 ha easternsection containing mature red cedarswere positive for H. capsulatum.In March 1981, with the sitescheduled for sale and possibledevelopment, we sampled the 1.2 hawestern section again to see if aH. capsulatum infestation haddeveloped. Using the same techni-ques described above, we found, that19 of the 37 samples taken werepositive for the fungus. However,these were confined to a 0.5 hastrip adjacent to the 0.8 ha easternsection already found to be infestedwith H_. capsulatum.At this point the Warren CountyHealth Department decided that the1.3 ha of infested land should bedecontaminated to prevent a possibleoutbreak of histoplasmosis when andif the site was disrupted. TheKentucky Department of Agricultureagreed to provide transportation forthe formalin (which the landownerpurchased), and the KentuckyResearch Station of the U. S. Fishand Wildlife Service (now USDA-APHIS-Animal Damage ControlResearch) agreed to provide asprinkler system that had previouslybeen used experimentally to apply asurfactant (PA-14) to winter-roosting blackbirds and starlings.In June 1981, on advice of theU.S. Public Health Service, the vege-tation was removed by bulldozer fromthe _H. capsulatum-infested area(at a time when the ground was damp)so that only weeds and forbs wereleft. Brush was piled up along theeast and west sides of the targetarea (Fig. 1). Next, the sprinklersystem was set up in an 18.3 m (60ft) grid pattern (Figs. 1 & 2). Itconsisted of 9.1 m (30 ft) horizontalsections of 5.1-cm (2 in) and 7.6-cm(3 in) diameter irrigation pipe, andvertical 2.5-cm (1 in) diameterrisers 1.6 m (5 ft) in height, withToro Ag-2 Model 358 sprinklers eachequipped with two 0.44-cm (11/64 in)diameter nozzles (Fig. 3). Becausenot enough pipe was available tospray the 1.3- ha area at one time,the site was treated in two stages(Fig. 1). Approximately 20 man-hourswere required to put the system inplace for the first application. Inthis position, where the spray fromsome sprinklers would likely reachthe trailer park 30 m distant on thenorth side, baffles were installed onthese sprinklers.On the evening of 9 July 1981,formalin (37% formaldehyde gas [bywt/wt] in water stabilized with 10-15% methanol) was delivered to thespray site in a 10,850-liter capacityKentucky Department of Agriculturetank truck. At 2300 hours we beganto inject the formalin into the 6.4cm-diameter (2.5 in) fire hose linethat supplied the water to thesprinkler system from a hydrantlocated approximately 300 m from thespray site. A fire truck at thehydrant pumped the water at a rate of662 liters/min (175 gpm) at apressure of 862 kilopascals (kpa)(125 psi). This resulted in approxi-mately 414 kpa (60 psi) at thesprinklers with a resultant sprayradius of 17 m. The formalin wasdrawn from the tank truck by a truck-mounted pump and injected into thefire hose line at a 6% rate by a 10.2cm (4 in) proportioning device. Weoperated the system for 3 hours,172TRAILER PARKSCALE: 1cm = 9.6mpipE* SPRINKLERA TREEBAFFLEFIELDFigure 1. The two positions of the sprinkler system on _H. capsulatum-infested site. Overlaid circular hatching indicates spray patterns forsprinklers.173Figure  2. Close-up o f  i r r i g a t i o n  p i p e  and connections used t o  spray f o r m a l i n .  A 5 f t  r i s e r  i s  p laced  i n  t h e  h o l e  i n  t h e  c e n t e r  o f  t h e  u p r i g h t  connector. applying approximately 1162200 1 i t ers  o f  6% fo rma l  i n  t o  a 4684 m areat or 24.8 l i t e r s  pf 6% f o r m a l i n  per m (0.61 g a l / f t  1 ,  and t5en applied 4.3 l i ters  of water  pe r  rn t o  soak the formal i n  i n t o  t h e  s o i  1. Despi te  the presence of s t r o n g  f o r m a l i n  fumes, we s h i f t e d  t h e  s p r i n k l e r  system t o  the second p o s i -  t i o n  (F ig .  1) i n  1 6  man-hours on 10 July 1981 and aga in  p u t  b a f f l e s  on the s p r i n k l e r s  nearest the t r a i  ler  park .  We pumped 6% f o r n ~ a l i n  f rom another tank t r u c k  l o a d  of formal  i n  f o r  4 hours beginning a t  2000 hours.  We a p p l i e d  152,900 l i t e r s  o f  6% f o r m a l i n  5688 m 2  of land,  o r  26.9 i i t e r r  F i gu re  3 .  A Toro s p r i n k l e r  on top o f  a 5 f t  r i ser .  2 o f  6 1  5orrnal i n  per m ( 0 . 6 6  g $ l / f t  I, fo l lowed  by  4.3 l i t ers /  m o f  water. We conducted the o p e r a t i o n s  a t  n i g h t  because of l o w e r  temperatures and winds. The s p r i n k l e r  system o p e r a t o r  wore a s e l f - c o n t a i n e d  b r e a t h i n g  appara tus .  The l o c a l  C i v i  1 Defense U n i t  c l o s e l y  moni to red the sp ray  o p e r a t i o n s ,  and t h e  local u t i l i t y  company i n s t a l l e d  a backflow p r e v e n t i o n  system i n  t h e  f i r e  hose l i n e  t o  prevent f o r m a l i n  f rom entering the c i t y  water  supply.  Temperatures during the operating ting hours on t h p  n i g h t  o f  9-10 July 1981 averaged 27 C w i t h  a 2-5 km/h breeze f rom the  south.  The f o l l o w -  i ng  n i g h t ,  temperatures  averaged 29°C with a 2-5 km/h westerlybreeze.On 16 July 1981, 30 soil samplesincluding 8 core samples taken at adepth of 20-25 cm were collected.These samples were processed atMorehead State University on 17 July1981 using the procedures previouslydescribed.RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONAll soil samples collected on 16July 1981 were found to be negativefor ]H_. capsulatum, and the sitewas declared free of the fungus.All vegetation that had remained onthe area was killed by the formalinapplication except for severaldeciduous trees (Sassafrasa 1 b i d urn).As of October 1987, the site hadnot been further disturbed, and nomore histoplasmosis cases had beenreported from the area.The night of 9-10 July thesoutherly breeze caused some forma-lin fumes to drift into the adjacenttrailer park on the north side.However, the residents were inside,and all of the trailers were operat-ing air conditioners. This situa-tion did not recur the next nightbecause the westerly breeze causedthe fumes to drift high to the eastout of range of a trailer parklocated 370 m distant on that side.In the trailer park to the north,one vegetable garden and the lawnswithin 30 m of the spray area weredamaged.We used a more concentrated solu-tion of formalin applied at a lowervolume than called for in CDCinstructions (£0.7 liters of j%formalin per m [1 gal per ft'])(U.S. Dept of Health, Education, andWelfare, undated, HistoplasmosisControl). Running the sprinklersystem for the 14 hours necessary toattain the higher volume would havebeen impractical.Total cost of the operation totreat 1.3 ha is estimated at$17,000, or approximately $13,000per ha. This was less expensivethan an operation described byBartlett et al. (1982) at roughly$23,000 per ha. Total manpowerrequirements were approximately thesame (740 man-hours for our operationcompared with 660 for Bartlett's),but Bartlett's operation treated 2.5times as much acreage. The latteroperation employed two tank trucks todrive back and forth over the acreagefor a 2-week period and anotherlarger truck to hold the formalinsupply. Apparently the major part ofthe cost differential came fromleasing the trucks, and to a minorextent, the cost of formalin. Theformalin in our operation cost $0.23/liter compared with $0.41/liter forthe Bartlett operation.We thank Warren Graham, WallacePrice, Martin Jones and Kathy Hunt ofthe Warren County Health Department,Geary Stahl of the Kentucky Depart-ment of Agriculture, members of theBowling Green Fire Department,Bowling Green Municipal Utilities andthe Bowling Green Civil Defense Unitfor their excellent cooperation. Wealso thank Robert Weeks of the U. S.Public Health Service for technicalreview of the manuscript and SandraSilvey of USDA-APHIS-ADC Research forillustration and manuscript prepara-tion.LITERATURE CITEDBARTLETT, P.C., R. J. WEEKS, and L.AJELLO. 1982. Decontamination ofa Histoplasma capsulatum-infested bird roost in Illinois.Arch. Environ. Health 37(4):221-223.CHICK, E. W., C. FLANIGAN, S. B.COMPTON, T. PASS II, C. GAYLE, C.HERNANDEZ, F. R. PITZER, and E.AUSTIN, JR. 1980. Blackbirdroosts and histoplasmosis: Anincreasing medical problem?Chest 77:584-585.CHIN, T. D. Y., F. E. TOSH, and R. J.WEEKS. 1970. Ecological andepidemiological studies of histo-plasmosis in the United States ofAmerica. Mycopathologia 40(1-2):35-44.175D'ALESSIO, D. J., R. H. HEEREN, S. L.HENDRICKS, P. OGILVIE, and M. L.FURCOLOW. 1965. A starling roostas the source of urban epidemichistoplasmosis in an area of lowincidence. Am. Rev. Resp. Dis.92:725-731.LATHAM, R. H., A. B. KAISER, W. D.DUPONT, and B. B. DAN. 1980.Chronic pulmonary histoplasmosisfollowing the excavation of a birdroost. Am. J. Med. 68:504-508.SMITH, C D . 1971. Isolation andidentification of Histoplasmacapsulatum from soil. Pages277-283 jn_ Proc. 2nd Natl . Conf.on Histoplasmosis.STICKLEY, A.R., JR., D. J. TWEDT, J.F. HEISTERBERG, D. F. MOTT, andJ.F. GLAHN. 1986. A surfactantspray system for controlling urbanblackbird and starling roosts.Wild!. Soc. Bull. 14(4):412-418.TOSH, F. E., I. L. DOTO, S. B.BEECHER, and T.D.Y. CHIN. 1970.Relationship of starling-blackbirdroosts and endemic histoplasmosis.Am. Rev. Resp. Dis. 101:283-288.TOSH, F. E., I. L. DOTO, D. J.D'ALESSIO, A. A. MEDEIROS, S. L.HENDRICKS, and T.D.Y. CHIN.1966a. The second of two epidemicsof histoplasmosis resulting fromwork on the same starling roost.Am. Rev. Resp. Dis. 94:406-413.TOSH, F. E., R. J. WEEKS, F. R.PFEIFFER, S. L. HENDRICKS, andT.D.Y. CHIN. 1966b. Chemicaldecontamination of soil containingHistoplasma capsulatum. Am. J.Epidemiol. 83:262-270.U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION,AND WELFARE. FORMALDEHYDE: Arecommended standard foroccupational exposure. PublicHealth Service, Center for DiseaseControl, NIOSH. Atlanta, Ga.9pp.U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION,AND WELFARE. HISTOPLASMOSISCONTROL. Decontamination of birdroosts, chicken houses and otherpoint sources. Public HealthService, Center for DiseaseControl. Atlanta, Ga. 10pp.176

DECONTAMINATION OF A HISTOPLASMA CAPSULATUM-INFESTED BLACKBIRD ROOST: USE OF A SPRINKLER SYSTEM TO APPLY FORMALIN

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University of Nebraska - Lincoln 
DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln 
3 - Third Eastern Wildlife Damage Control 
Conference (1987) Eastern Wildlife Damage Control Conferences 
October 1987 
DECONTAMINATION OF A HISTOPLASMA CAPSULATUM-
INFESTED BLACKBIRD ROOST: USE OF A SPRINKLER SYSTEM TO 
APPLY FORMALIN 
A.R. Stickley Jr. 
USDA-APHIS-ADC 
J.R. Pruitt 
Warren County Health Dept. 
C.E. Hume 
Warren County Health Dept 
T. Pass II 
Morehead State University, Morehead, KY 
C.H. Gayle 
Kentucky Dept. Agriculture, Division of Pest & Noxious Weed Control 
Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/ewdcc3 
 Part of the Environmental Health and Protection Commons 
Stickley, A.R. Jr.; Pruitt, J.R.; Hume, C.E.; Pass, T. II; and Gayle, C.H., "DECONTAMINATION OF A 
HISTOPLASMA CAPSULATUM-INFESTED BLACKBIRD ROOST: USE OF A SPRINKLER SYSTEM TO APPLY 
FORMALIN" (1987). 3 - Third Eastern Wildlife Damage Control Conference (1987). 59. 
https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/ewdcc3/59 
This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Eastern Wildlife Damage Control Conferences at 
DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. It has been accepted for inclusion in 3 - Third Eastern Wildlife 
Damage Control Conference (1987) by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - 
Lincoln. 
DECONTAMINATION OF A HISTOPLASMA CAPSULATUM-INFESTED BLACKBIRD ROOST:
USE OF A SPRINKLER SYSTEM TO APPLY FORMALIN
1/ ?/
by A. R. Stickley, Jr.,-'4/j. R. Pruitir,T. Pass II,-, and C. H.
-
 C5/E«Gayle5
ABSTRACT
When disturbed, blackbird/
starling roost sites can be sources
of locally severe outbreaks of
histoplasmosis; therefore decontami-
nation with formalin is sometimes
prudent. We describe the use of a
$5000 sprinkler system for spraying
formalin on a Histoplasma
capsulatum-infested roost site.
This system precludes direct worker
involvement in the application of
this hazardous chemical to the area.
Analysis of soil samples collected
and cultured both before and after
formalin treatment confirmed the
eradication of H^. capsulatum
from the 1.3 ha site. Cost was
approximately $17,000 with sprinkler
system provided at no charge.
INTRODUCTION
Histoplasmosis-infested blackbird
(Icterinae) and European starling
(Sturnus vulgaris) roosts in the
central Mississippi River Valley and
tributaries are known to be sources
of low-grade histoplasmosis infec-
tions in local communities (Chin et
al. 1970, Tosh et al. 1970, Chick et
al. 1980). These roost sites can
also be sources of locally severe
outbreaks of histoplasmosis when
they are disturbed (D'Alessio et al.
1965, Tosh et al. 1966a, Latham et
I/USDA-APHIS-ADC Research, Kentucky
Research Station, 334 15th Street,
Bowling Green, KY 42101
2_/Warren County Health Dept., 1133
Adams Street, Bowling Green, KY
42101
3_/Deceased
4_/Professor of Microbiology,
Morehead State Univers i ty , Morehead,
KY 40351
[[/Kentucky Dept. Agriculture,
Division of Pest & Noxious Weed
Control, Frankfort, KY 40601
al. 1980). Therefore, if disruption
of h[. capsulatum-infested sites
is planned, then decontamination is
prudent. To date, the only known
effective decontaminant is formalin
(U.S. Dept. of Health, Education, and
Welfare, undated, Histoplasmosis
Control). It was first used as such
in 1966 (Tosh et al. 1966b), and has
since been used occasionally for this
purpose (Bartlett et al. 1982). Past
formalin application techniques
required worker-held hoses, which
were disagreeable and dangerous to
the personnel involved (formalin is a
severe irritant and known carcinogen
{U.S. Dept. of Health, Education, and
Welfare, undated, Formaldehyde}). We
describe the application of formalin
to a H_. capsulatum-infested roost
site via a network of irrigation
pipes and sprinklers.
Site Description, Materials, and
Methods
The roost site was a 2 ha area in
the middle, of a 20 ha old field on
the north side of the Springhill
Subdivision 1000 m west of Kentucky
Highway 68-80 in Bowling Green,
Kentucky. Prior to January 1980,
eastern red cedars (Juniperus
virginiana) predominated here. The
1.2 ha western part of the site con-
tained young red cedars (10-15 cm
DBH), whereas mature ones (23-36 cm
DBH) occupied the 0.8 ha eastern
section. Wintering blackbirds and
starlings began to occupy both parts
sometime before the winter of 1978-
79 when their numbers reached approx-
imately 1 million. Occupancy was cut
short the next winter (January 1980)
when the 1.2 ha western side of the
roost was bulldozed (Stickley et al.
1986).
Because a case of histoplasmosis
had been diagnosed in a resident of
the Springhill Subdivision, 40 sur-
171
face soil samples were taken from
the 2-ha site in November 1979 and
cultured for the presence of H_.
capsulatum at Morehead State
University, Morehead, Kentucky.
Smith's modified oil flotation tech-
nique (Smith 1971) was followed in
the soil sample processing except
that: 1) the antibiotics were not
added until after the soil samples
had been strained into the blender;
and 2) 5 mg/ml of cycloheximide was
also added to the suspension. Media
preparation differed from Smith's
technique only in that cycloheximide
(0.5 q/1 , dissolved in acetone) was
added to the media before auto-
claving. Mouse injection and
necropsy techniques were as
described by Smith (1971). The
result was that 7 of the 10 samples
taken from the 0.8 ha eastern
section containing mature red cedars
were positive for H. capsulatum.
In March 1981, with the site
scheduled for sale and possible
development, we sampled the 1.2 ha
western section again to see if a
H. capsulatum infestation had
developed. Using the same techni-
ques described above, we found, that
19 of the 37 samples taken were
positive for the fungus. However,
these were confined to a 0.5 ha
strip adjacent to the 0.8 ha eastern
section already found to be infested
with H_. capsulatum.
At this point the Warren County
Health Department decided that the
1.3 ha of infested land should be
decontaminated to prevent a possible
outbreak of histoplasmosis when and
if the site was disrupted. The
Kentucky Department of Agriculture
agreed to provide transportation for
the formalin (which the landowner
purchased), and the Kentucky
Research Station of the U. S. Fish
and Wildlife Service (now USDA-
APHIS-Animal Damage Control
Research) agreed to provide a
sprinkler system that had previously
been used experimentally to apply a
surfactant (PA-14) to winter-
roosting blackbirds and starlings.
In June 1981, on advice of the
U.S. Public Health Service, the vege-
tation was removed by bulldozer from
the _H. capsulatum-infested area
(at a time when the ground was damp)
so that only weeds and forbs were
left. Brush was piled up along the
east and west sides of the target
area (Fig. 1). Next, the sprinkler
system was set up in an 18.3 m (60
ft) grid pattern (Figs. 1 & 2). It
consisted of 9.1 m (30 ft) horizontal
sections of 5.1-cm (2 in) and 7.6-cm
(3 in) diameter irrigation pipe, and
vertical 2.5-cm (1 in) diameter
risers 1.6 m (5 ft) in height, with
Toro Ag-2 Model 358 sprinklers each
equipped with two 0.44-cm (11/64 in)
diameter nozzles (Fig. 3). Because
not enough pipe was available to
spray the 1.3- ha area at one time,
the site was treated in two stages
(Fig. 1). Approximately 20 man-hours
were required to put the system in
place for the first application. In
this position, where the spray from
some sprinklers would likely reach
the trailer park 30 m distant on the
north side, baffles were installed on
these sprinklers.
On the evening of 9 July 1981,
formalin (37% formaldehyde gas [by
wt/wt] in water stabilized with 10-
15% methanol) was delivered to the
spray site in a 10,850-liter capacity
Kentucky Department of Agriculture
tank truck. At 2300 hours we began
to inject the formalin into the 6.4
cm-diameter (2.5 in) fire hose line
that supplied the water to the
sprinkler system from a hydrant
located approximately 300 m from the
spray site. A fire truck at the
hydrant pumped the water at a rate of
662 liters/min (175 gpm) at a
pressure of 862 kilopascals (kpa)
(125 psi). This resulted in approxi-
mately 414 kpa (60 psi) at the
sprinklers with a resultant spray
radius of 17 m. The formalin was
drawn from the tank truck by a truck-
mounted pump and injected into the
fire hose line at a 6% rate by a 10.2
cm (4 in) proportioning device. We
operated the system for 3 hours,
172
TRAILER PARK
SCALE: 1cm = 9.6m
pipE
* SPRINKLER
A TREE
BAFFLE
FIELD
Figure 1. The two positions of the sprinkler system on _H. capsulatum-
infested site. Overlaid circular hatching indicates spray patterns for
sprinklers.
173
Figure  2. Close-up o f  i r r i g a t i o n  p i p e  
and connections used t o  spray f o r m a l i n .  
A 5 f t  r i s e r  i s  p laced  i n  t h e  h o l e  i n  
t h e  c e n t e r  o f  t h e  u p r i g h t  connector. 
applying approximately 1162200 1 i t ers  
o f  6% fo rma l  i n  t o  a 4684 m areat or 
24.8 l i t e r s  pf 6% f o r m a l i n  per m 
(0.61 g a l / f t  1 ,  and t5en applied 4.3 
l i ters  of water  pe r  rn t o  soak the 
formal i n  i n t o  t h e  s o i  1. 
Despi te  the presence of s t r o n g  
f o r m a l i n  fumes, we s h i f t e d  t h e  
s p r i n k l e r  system t o  the second p o s i -  
t i o n  (F ig .  1) i n  1 6  man-hours on 10 
July 1981 and aga in  p u t  b a f f l e s  on the 
s p r i n k l e r s  nearest the t r a i  ler  park .  
We pumped 6% f o r n ~ a l i n  f rom another 
tank t r u c k  l o a d  of formal  i n  f o r  4 
hours beginning a t  2000 hours.  We 
a p p l i e d  152,900 l i t e r s  o f  6% f o r m a l i n  
5688 m 2  of land,  o r  26.9 i i t e r r  
F i gu re  3 .  A Toro s p r i n k l e r  on top 
o f  a 5 f t  r i ser .  
2 
o f  6 1  5orrnal i n  per m ( 0 . 6 6  
g $ l / f t  I, fo l lowed  by  4.3 l i t ers /  
m o f  water. 
We conducted the o p e r a t i o n s  a t  
n i g h t  because of l o w e r  temperatures 
and winds. The s p r i n k l e r  system 
o p e r a t o r  wore a s e l f - c o n t a i n e d  
b r e a t h i n g  appara tus .  The l o c a l  
C i v i  1 Defense U n i t  c l o s e l y  moni to red 
the sp ray  o p e r a t i o n s ,  and t h e  local 
u t i l i t y  company i n s t a l l e d  a backflow 
p r e v e n t i o n  system i n  t h e  f i r e  hose 
l i n e  t o  prevent f o r m a l i n  f rom 
entering the c i t y  water  supply.  
Temperatures during the operating 
ting hours on t h p  n i g h t  o f  9-10 July 
1981 averaged 27 C w i t h  a 2-5 km/h 
breeze f rom the  south.  The f o l l o w -  
i ng  n i g h t ,  temperatures  averaged 
29°C with a 2-5 km/h westerly
breeze.
On 16 July 1981, 30 soil samples
including 8 core samples taken at a
depth of 20-25 cm were collected.
These samples were processed at
Morehead State University on 17 July
1981 using the procedures previously
described.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
All soil samples collected on 16
July 1981 were found to be negative
for ]H_. capsulatum, and the site
was declared free of the fungus.
All vegetation that had remained on
the area was killed by the formalin
application except for several
deciduous trees (Sassafras
a 1 b i d urn).
As of October 1987, the site had
not been further disturbed, and no
more histoplasmosis cases had been
reported from the area.
The night of 9-10 July the
southerly breeze caused some forma-
lin fumes to drift into the adjacent
trailer park on the north side.
However, the residents were inside,
and all of the trailers were operat-
ing air conditioners. This situa-
tion did not recur the next night
because the westerly breeze caused
the fumes to drift high to the east
out of range of a trailer park
located 370 m distant on that side.
In the trailer park to the north,
one vegetable garden and the lawns
within 30 m of the spray area were
damaged.
We used a more concentrated solu-
tion of formalin applied at a lower
volume than called for in CDC
instructions (£0.7 liters of j%
formalin per m [1 gal per ft'])
(U.S. Dept of Health, Education, and
Welfare, undated, Histoplasmosis
Control). Running the sprinkler
system for the 14 hours necessary to
attain the higher volume would have
been impractical.
Total cost of the operation to
treat 1.3 ha is estimated at
$17,000, or approximately $13,000
per ha. This was less expensive
than an operation described by
Bartlett et al. (1982) at roughly
$23,000 per ha. Total manpower
requirements were approximately the
same (740 man-hours for our operation
compared with 660 for Bartlett's),
but Bartlett's operation treated 2.5
times as much acreage. The latter
operation employed two tank trucks to
drive back and forth over the acreage
for a 2-week period and another
larger truck to hold the formalin
supply. Apparently the major part of
the cost differential came from
leasing the trucks, and to a minor
extent, the cost of formalin. The
formalin in our operation cost $0.23/
liter compared with $0.41/liter for
the Bartlett operation.
We thank Warren Graham, Wallace
Price, Martin Jones and Kathy Hunt of
the Warren County Health Department,
Geary Stahl of the Kentucky Depart-
ment of Agriculture, members of the
Bowling Green Fire Department,
Bowling Green Municipal Utilities and
the Bowling Green Civil Defense Unit
for their excellent cooperation. We
also thank Robert Weeks of the U. S.
Public Health Service for technical
review of the manuscript and Sandra
Silvey of USDA-APHIS-ADC Research for
illustration and manuscript prepara-
tion.
LITERATURE CITED
BARTLETT, P.C., R. J. WEEKS, and L.
AJELLO. 1982. Decontamination of
a Histoplasma capsulatum-
infested bird roost in Illinois.
Arch. Environ. Health 37(4):
221-223.
CHICK, E. W., C. FLANIGAN, S. B.
COMPTON, T. PASS II, C. GAYLE, C.
HERNANDEZ, F. R. PITZER, and E.
AUSTIN, JR. 1980. Blackbird
roosts and histoplasmosis: An
increasing medical problem?
Chest 77:584-585.
CHIN, T. D. Y., F. E. TOSH, and R. J.
WEEKS. 1970. Ecological and
epidemiological studies of histo-
plasmosis in the United States of
America. Mycopathologia 40(1-2):
35-44.
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D'ALESSIO, D. J., R. H. HEEREN, S. L.
HENDRICKS, P. OGILVIE, and M. L.
FURCOLOW. 1965. A starling roost
as the source of urban epidemic
histoplasmosis in an area of low
incidence. Am. Rev. Resp. Dis.
92:725-731.
LATHAM, R. H., A. B. KAISER, W. D.
DUPONT, and B. B. DAN. 1980.
Chronic pulmonary histoplasmosis
following the excavation of a bird
roost. Am. J. Med. 68:504-508.
SMITH, C D . 1971. Isolation and
identification of Histoplasma
capsulatum from soil. Pages
277-283 jn_ Proc. 2nd Natl . Conf.
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STICKLEY, A.R., JR., D. J. TWEDT, J.
F. HEISTERBERG, D. F. MOTT, and
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spray system for controlling urban
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TOSH, F. E., I. L. DOTO, S. B.
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roosts and endemic histoplasmosis.
Am. Rev. Resp. Dis. 101:283-288.
TOSH, F. E., I. L. DOTO, D. J.
D'ALESSIO, A. A. MEDEIROS, S. L.
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1966a. The second of two epidemics
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work on the same starling roost.
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TOSH, F. E., R. J. WEEKS, F. R.
PFEIFFER, S. L. HENDRICKS, and
T.D.Y. CHIN. 1966b. Chemical
decontamination of soil containing
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AND WELFARE. FORMALDEHYDE: A
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176


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DECONTAMINATION OF A HISTOPLASMA CAPSULATUM-INFESTED BLACKBIRD ROOST: USE OF A SPRINKLER SYSTEM TO APPLY FORMALIN

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