In situ fluorometry is being developed as a method for rapidly detecting and quantifying hydrocarbon contamination in ground water and soil. The results of a fluorometry survey over a site having known fuel contamination are compared to results from a soil gas survey over the same site. The fluorometry data showed three additional contaminated areas that were not detected by soil gas measurements. Soil analyses confirmed the presence of the contaminated areas

Chrestman, A. M.

Comes, G. D.

Kooper, S. S.

Malone, P. G.

English

DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska

University of Nebraska - Lincoln DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln US Army Research U.S. Department of Defense 1992 Rapid Detection of Hydrocarbon Contamination in Ground Water and Soil A. M. Chrestman USAE Waterways Experiment Station G. D. Comes USAE Waterways Experiment Station S. S. Kooper USAE Waterways Experiment Station P. G. Malone USAE Waterways Experiment Station Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/usarmyresearch  Part of the Operations Research, Systems Engineering and Industrial Engineering Commons Chrestman, A. M.; Comes, G. D.; Kooper, S. S.; and Malone, P. G., "Rapid Detection of Hydrocarbon Contamination in Ground Water and Soil" (1992). US Army Research. 79. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/usarmyresearch/79 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the U.S. Department of Defense at DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. It has been accepted for inclusion in US Army Research by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. RAPID DETECTION OF HYDROCARBON CONTAMINATION IN GROUND WATER AND SOIL Abstract A. M. Chrestman\ G. D. Comes2, S. S. Cooper3, and P. G. Malone3 In situ fluorometry is being developed as a method for rapidly detecting and quantifying hydrocarbon contamination in ground water and soil. The results of a fluorometry survey over a site having known fuel contamination are compared to results from a soil gas survey over the same site. The fluorometry data showed three additional contaminated areas that were not detected by soil gas measurements. Soil analyses confirmed the presence of the contaminated areas. Introduction Hydrocarbon contamination from fuel leaks and spills is one of the most com-mon ground water pollution problems in the United States. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency estimates indicate that there are over two million fuel storage tanks in the United States and any tank can potentially be a pollutant source (Valen-tinetti, 1989). Surveys of existing tank facilities indicate approximately 30% are leaking (Taylor, 1989). Leaks in underground storage tanks and underground fuel transfer lines are difficult to detect and locate. Often the leaks are so small that inventory studies are ineffective in locating the source of the pollutant. The rate of dissipation or natural degradation of fuel contamination in soil is extremely slow in many cases and even a small fuel leak can produce serious contamination that is extremely costly to remediate. Iphysicist, Geotechnical Laboratory, USAE Waterways Experiment Station, 3909 Halls Ferry Road, Vicksburg, MS 39180 2Civil Engineer, Geotechnical Laboratory, USAE Waterways Experiment Station, 3909 Halls Ferry Road, Vicksburg, MS 39180 3Geophysicist, Geotechnical Laboratory, USAE Waterways Experiment Station, 3909 Halls Ferry Road, Vicksburg, MS 39180 1165 Published in Hydraulic Engineering: Saving a Threatened Resource—In Search of Solutions: Proceedings of the Hydraulic Engineering sessions at Water Forum ’92. Baltimore, Maryland, August 2–6, 1992. Published by American Society of Civil Engineers.1166 HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING In view of the magnitude and the continuing nature of the problem of hydro-carbon contamination, it is important that techniques for detecting and mapping hydrocarbon contamination in soil and ground water be continually improved. At present the major methods of locating hydrocarbon contamination in a site investi-gation involve the measurement of hydrocarbons in soil gas to determine the presence of volatile organic contaminants diffusing through the soil. However, all of the soil gas methods encounter the problem of irregular diffusion rates that vary due to changes in soil temperature, water content and atmospheric pressure changes. The correlation between the concentration of hydrocarbon vapor in soil gas and the con-centration in soil is generally low (Marks and Singh, 1990). An alternate method for locating and mapping hydrocarbon in soil has been developed based on the optical properties of petroleum contamination in soil. Initial trials suggest that in-situ fluorescence measurements made with a fiber-optic flu-orometer mounted in a cone penetrometer offer significant advantages over soil gas measurements in mapping hydrocarbon contamination. The purpose of this report is to show the results of a soil contamination study done with a fiber-optic fluorometer and to compare the results with a soil gas survey done over the same area. Design of the Penetrometer/Fluorometer System Truck-mounted cone penetrometers are in routine use in the investigation of soil strength properties of foundations and roadway subgrades. The waste site in-vestigation equipment was adapted from the design of a standard civil engineering penetrometer. The van body was modified to provide a separate instrumentation compartment that can be kept clean and for safety reasons is isolated from the com-partment housing the rams and the penetrometer rods. Figure 1 shows the arrange-ment of the equipment. A complete description of the penetrometer unit is presented in Lurk et al. (1991). Fig. 1. Photo of penetrometer truck and developed for investigation of hazardous waste sites. RAPID DETECTION 1167 The instrumentation built into the penetrometer rod includes the usual strain mea-surement systems for measuring vertical forces on the conical tip of the rod and the vertical forces on the friction sleeve mounted behind the cone. These two soil strength measurements taken together can provide an index of the soil type. Addi-tionally, the cone is equipped with a sapphire window that allows light to be passed down an optical fiber and through the window to illuminate the soil immediately opposite the window. In measuring fluorescence, a 337 nm nitrogen laser is coupled to the fiber to furnish the illumination or excitation. Different petroleum products in the soil have different emission maxima depending on the characteristic types aro-matic compounds present (Fig. 2). The major fluorophores are polynuclear aromatic compounds. The light passes back up through a second fiber and the energy distri-bution in the spectrum is determined using an optical multichannel analyzer. The position of the rod, the force on the tip, the sleeve friction, and the data from the spectral analysis are all recorded for each cm of the penetrometer push. 12K 10K -8K ., ~ ~ 6K ., 0::: 92 Octane Gasoline ....., !l 4K I: :;, 0 u 2K OK 300 400 500 600 700 800 Wavelength (nm) Fig. 2. Fluorescence spectra collected with the fiber-optic fluorometer from different hydrocarbon products. Each hydrocarbon was mixed in a moist (10% water) sand matrix. A calibration curve is used to estimate the concentration of hydrocarbon present. The calibration curve presented in Fig. 3 was prepared using fresh diesel fuel in an Ottawa sand matrix. Note that the fluorometer can reliably locate diesel fuel down to concentrations as low as 500 ppm. 1168 HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING Comparison of Soil Gas and Fluorometer Data Figure 4 shows an oblique view of a three-dimensional plot of the volumes of soil contaminated at levels that provide a fluorescence intensity equivalent to or greater than that observed in soils contaminated with 500 ppm of diesel fuel. The surface area shown in Fig. 4 is approximately 107 m2 • The data are plotted in three dimensions to show the positions and the extmpolated shapes of the contaminated soil masses. The contour lines on the top side of the block show the results of a soil gas survey undertaken over the same area with a flammable gas meter calibrated on benzene. The soil gas survey and the fluorometer both show three major areas of hydrocarbon contamination on the east side of the site. Note that three additional areas on the west side of the study area were found with the penetrometer!fluorometer but did not appear in the soil gas survey data. Soil samples collected from the northwestern end of the site showed up to 11,300 ppm hydrocarbon in the soil confirming the fluorometer data. Estimates of the hydrocarbon concentration from the soil fluorometer data taken from the same point ranged as high as 17,000 ppm. The soil gas survey showed no detectable hy-drocarbon at this same point. 3.0K ro-------r------.-------r------,--~ 2.0K ....... II ~ C II 0:: '-'1.0K !! c :::I o () O.OK #2 Diesel Fuel Calibration Curve Measured at 406 nm -1.0K ~ ___ ...l.-__ __L ___ ...l._ _ __L--J o 500 1000 1500 2000 Parts Per Million Fig. 3. Calibration curve for #2 diesel fuel mixed in sand. This type of curve allows the concentration of diesel-based pollutant in the soil to be estimated. RAPID DETECTION 1169 Fig. 4. Block view of a closed fuel storage/transfer area showing the soil that based on fluorescence has the equivalent of 500 ppm or more of diesel fuel contamination. Summary This study offers an example of some of the basic features of the two soil sur-vey techniques. The contrast between the two survey systems can be summarized as follows: 1) Low molecular weight hydrocarbons must be present for the soil gas system to be effective in locating contaminated soils. The fluorometer is most effective when heavy hydrocarbons with polynuclear aromatic components are present. 2) When the temperature and barometric pressure effects prevent the soil from outgassing, the soil gas measurements are ineffective. The fluorometer detects hy-drocarbons directly in the soil regardless of the climatic or atmospheric conditions at the site. 3) Soil layers that have low permeability due to the presence of clay or due to a high water content can prevent the transmission of hydrocarbon vapor to the surface. Only direct measurement systems can operate consistently well if soil lay-ering is complex. The cone penetrometer can map both the soil type and the contaminant concentration in a single push. 4) The soil gas survey can detect contamination from outgassing soils provid-ing the location of a point on the surface above the hydrocarbon. The penetrometer sensor system can locate contamination at any depth down to approximately 50 m (in normally compacted soils) and can provide data on the depth, number and thickness of the contaminated soil layers. 1170 HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING Acknowledgments Messrs. Don Douglas, Clifford Grey, Richard Olsen, Jeffery Powell, Bobby Reed, A1tee Graves, Wendell Peterson, Joseph Koester and Michael Sharp were involved in the data collection and data processing at WES. The authors gratefully acknowledge the help of Mr. Clifford Grey in preparing the figures. The project was under the direct supervision of Dr. A. G. Franklin and Mr. Joseph Curro, Jr. of the Earthquake Engineering and Geosciences Division, Geotechnical Laboratory, WES. The development of the penetrometer for hazardous waste site character-ization is sponsored jointly by the Department of Defense and the Department of Energy. The research effort is directed by the U.S. Army Toxic and Hazardous Materials Agency and is a tri-services project undertaken with the cooperation of the Air Force and Navy. The tests described and the resulting data presented herein, unless otherwise noted, were obtained from research conducted under the Site Characterization and Analysis Cone Penetrometer System Tri-services Program directed by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Permission to publish this report was given by the Chief of Engineers. The views of the authors do not purport to reflect the position of the U.S. Department of Army or of the U.S. Department of Defense. References Lurk, P. W. et al. (1991). "Laser-induced fluorescence in contaminated soils." Pre-sented at the SPIE International Symposium on Laser Spectroscopy, Los Angeles, CA, Jan. 20-25, 1991. Tech. Conf. Pap. 1434-15. Marks, B. J. and Singh, M. (1990). "Comparison of soil-gas and groundwater con-taminant levels of benzene and toluene." Hazardous Mat. Control 3(6): 40-46. Taylor, B. D. (1989). "Environmental regulations place new responsibilities on property owners." pp. 3-7 in Kostecki, P. T. and Calabrese, E. l, Petroleum Con-taminated Soils, Vol. 2, Lewis Publishers, Chelsea MI. Valentinetti, R. A. (1989). "Federal underground storage tank regulations and contaminated soils." pp. 55-60 in Kostecki, P. T. and Calabrese, E. J., Petroleum Contaminated Soils, Vol. 1, Lewis Publishers, Chelsea MI. 

Rapid Detection of Hydrocarbon Contamination in Ground Water and Soil

UNL | Libraries

University of Nebraska - Lincoln 
DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln 
US Army Research U.S. Department of Defense 
1992 
Rapid Detection of Hydrocarbon Contamination in Ground Water 
and Soil 
A. M. Chrestman 
USAE Waterways Experiment Station 
G. D. Comes 
USAE Waterways Experiment Station 
S. S. Kooper 
USAE Waterways Experiment Station 
P. G. Malone 
USAE Waterways Experiment Station 
Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/usarmyresearch 
 Part of the Operations Research, Systems Engineering and Industrial Engineering Commons 
Chrestman, A. M.; Comes, G. D.; Kooper, S. S.; and Malone, P. G., "Rapid Detection of Hydrocarbon 
Contamination in Ground Water and Soil" (1992). US Army Research. 79. 
https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/usarmyresearch/79 
This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the U.S. Department of Defense at 
DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. It has been accepted for inclusion in US Army Research by an 
authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. 
RAPID DETECTION OF HYDROCARBON CONTAMINATION 
IN GROUND WATER AND SOIL 
Abstract 
A. M. Chrestman\ G. D. Comes2, S. S. Cooper3, 
and P. G. Malone3 
In situ fluorometry is being developed as a method for rapidly detecting and 
quantifying hydrocarbon contamination in ground water and soil. The results of a 
fluorometry survey over a site having known fuel contamination are compared to 
results from a soil gas survey over the same site. The fluorometry data showed three 
additional contaminated areas that were not detected by soil gas measurements. Soil 
analyses confirmed the presence of the contaminated areas. 
Introduction 
Hydrocarbon contamination from fuel leaks and spills is one of the most com-
mon ground water pollution problems in the United States. U.S. Environmental 
Protection Agency estimates indicate that there are over two million fuel storage 
tanks in the United States and any tank can potentially be a pollutant source (Valen-
tinetti, 1989). Surveys of existing tank facilities indicate approximately 30% are 
leaking (Taylor, 1989). Leaks in underground storage tanks and underground fuel 
transfer lines are difficult to detect and locate. Often the leaks are so small that 
inventory studies are ineffective in locating the source of the pollutant. The rate of 
dissipation or natural degradation of fuel contamination in soil is extremely slow in 
many cases and even a small fuel leak can produce serious contamination that is 
extremely costly to remediate. 
Iphysicist, Geotechnical Laboratory, USAE Waterways Experiment Station, 
3909 Halls Ferry Road, Vicksburg, MS 39180 
2Civil Engineer, Geotechnical Laboratory, USAE Waterways Experiment Station, 
3909 Halls Ferry Road, Vicksburg, MS 39180 
3Geophysicist, Geotechnical Laboratory, USAE Waterways Experiment Station, 
3909 Halls Ferry Road, Vicksburg, MS 39180 
1165 
Published in Hydraulic Engineering: Saving a Threatened Resource—In Search of Solutions: 
Proceedings of the Hydraulic Engineering sessions at Water Forum ’92. 
Baltimore, Maryland, August 2–6, 1992. Published by American Society of Civil Engineers.
1166 HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING 
In view of the magnitude and the continuing nature of the problem of hydro-
carbon contamination, it is important that techniques for detecting and mapping 
hydrocarbon contamination in soil and ground water be continually improved. At 
present the major methods of locating hydrocarbon contamination in a site investi-
gation involve the measurement of hydrocarbons in soil gas to determine the 
presence of volatile organic contaminants diffusing through the soil. However, all of 
the soil gas methods encounter the problem of irregular diffusion rates that vary due 
to changes in soil temperature, water content and atmospheric pressure changes. The 
correlation between the concentration of hydrocarbon vapor in soil gas and the con-
centration in soil is generally low (Marks and Singh, 1990). 
An alternate method for locating and mapping hydrocarbon in soil has been 
developed based on the optical properties of petroleum contamination in soil. Initial 
trials suggest that in-situ fluorescence measurements made with a fiber-optic flu-
orometer mounted in a cone penetrometer offer significant advantages over soil gas 
measurements in mapping hydrocarbon contamination. The purpose of this report is 
to show the results of a soil contamination study done with a fiber-optic fluorometer 
and to compare the results with a soil gas survey done over the same area. 
Design of the Penetrometer/Fluorometer System 
Truck-mounted cone penetrometers are in routine use in the investigation of 
soil strength properties of foundations and roadway subgrades. The waste site in-
vestigation equipment was adapted from the design of a standard civil engineering 
penetrometer. The van body was modified to provide a separate instrumentation 
compartment that can be kept clean and for safety reasons is isolated from the com-
partment housing the rams and the penetrometer rods. Figure 1 shows the arrange-
ment of the equipment. A complete description of the penetrometer unit is presented 
in Lurk et al. (1991). 
Fig. 1. Photo of penetrometer truck and developed for investigation of hazardous 
waste sites. 
RAPID DETECTION 1167 
The instrumentation built into the penetrometer rod includes the usual strain mea-
surement systems for measuring vertical forces on the conical tip of the rod and the 
vertical forces on the friction sleeve mounted behind the cone. These two soil 
strength measurements taken together can provide an index of the soil type. Addi-
tionally, the cone is equipped with a sapphire window that allows light to be passed 
down an optical fiber and through the window to illuminate the soil immediately 
opposite the window. In measuring fluorescence, a 337 nm nitrogen laser is coupled 
to the fiber to furnish the illumination or excitation. Different petroleum products in 
the soil have different emission maxima depending on the characteristic types aro-
matic compounds present (Fig. 2). The major fluorophores are polynuclear aromatic 
compounds. The light passes back up through a second fiber and the energy distri-
bution in the spectrum is determined using an optical multichannel analyzer. The 
position of the rod, the force on the tip, the sleeve friction, and the data from the 
spectral analysis are all recorded for each cm of the penetrometer push. 
12K 
10K 
-
8K 
., 
~ 
~ 6K 
., 
0::: 92 Octane Gasoline ....., 
!l 4K 
I: 
:;, 
0 
u 2K 
OK 
300 400 500 600 700 800 
Wavelength (nm) 
Fig. 2. Fluorescence spectra collected with the fiber-optic fluorometer from different 
hydrocarbon products. Each hydrocarbon was mixed in a moist (10% water) sand 
matrix. 
A calibration curve is used to estimate the concentration of hydrocarbon 
present. The calibration curve presented in Fig. 3 was prepared using fresh diesel 
fuel in an Ottawa sand matrix. Note that the fluorometer can reliably locate diesel 
fuel down to concentrations as low as 500 ppm. 
1168 HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING 
Comparison of Soil Gas and Fluorometer Data 
Figure 4 shows an oblique view of a three-dimensional plot of the volumes of 
soil contaminated at levels that provide a fluorescence intensity equivalent to or 
greater than that observed in soils contaminated with 500 ppm of diesel fuel. The 
surface area shown in Fig. 4 is approximately 107 m2 • The data are plotted in three 
dimensions to show the positions and the extmpolated shapes of the contaminated 
soil masses. The contour lines on the top side of the block show the results of a soil 
gas survey undertaken over the same area with a flammable gas meter calibrated on 
benzene. The soil gas survey and the fluorometer both show three major areas of 
hydrocarbon contamination on the east side of the site. Note that three additional 
areas on the west side of the study area were found with the penetrometer!fluorometer 
but did not appear in the soil gas survey data. 
Soil samples collected from the northwestern end of the site showed up to 
11,300 ppm hydrocarbon in the soil confirming the fluorometer data. Estimates of 
the hydrocarbon concentration from the soil fluorometer data taken from the same 
point ranged as high as 17,000 ppm. The soil gas survey showed no detectable hy-
drocarbon at this same point. 
3.0K ro-------r------.-------r------,--~ 
2.0K 
....... 
II 
~ 
C 
II 
0:: 
'-'1.0K 
!! 
c 
:::I 
o 
() 
O.OK 
#2 Diesel Fuel Calibration Curve 
Measured at 406 nm 
-1.0K ~ ___ ...l.-__ __L ___ ...l._ _ __L--J 
o 500 1000 1500 2000 
Parts Per Million 
Fig. 3. Calibration curve for #2 diesel fuel mixed in sand. This type of curve allows 
the concentration of diesel-based pollutant in the soil to be estimated. 
RAPID DETECTION 1169 
Fig. 4. Block view of a closed fuel storage/transfer area showing the soil that based 
on fluorescence has the equivalent of 500 ppm or more of diesel fuel contamination. 
Summary 
This study offers an example of some of the basic features of the two soil sur-
vey techniques. The contrast between the two survey systems can be summarized as 
follows: 
1) Low molecular weight hydrocarbons must be present for the soil gas system 
to be effective in locating contaminated soils. The fluorometer is most effective 
when heavy hydrocarbons with polynuclear aromatic components are present. 
2) When the temperature and barometric pressure effects prevent the soil from 
outgassing, the soil gas measurements are ineffective. The fluorometer detects hy-
drocarbons directly in the soil regardless of the climatic or atmospheric conditions at 
the site. 
3) Soil layers that have low permeability due to the presence of clay or due to 
a high water content can prevent the transmission of hydrocarbon vapor to the 
surface. Only direct measurement systems can operate consistently well if soil lay-
ering is complex. The cone penetrometer can map both the soil type and the 
contaminant concentration in a single push. 
4) The soil gas survey can detect contamination from outgassing soils provid-
ing the location of a point on the surface above the hydrocarbon. The penetrometer 
sensor system can locate contamination at any depth down to approximately 50 m (in 
normally compacted soils) and can provide data on the depth, number and thickness 
of the contaminated soil layers. 
1170 HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING 
Acknowledgments 
Messrs. Don Douglas, Clifford Grey, Richard Olsen, Jeffery Powell, Bobby 
Reed, A1tee Graves, Wendell Peterson, Joseph Koester and Michael Sharp were 
involved in the data collection and data processing at WES. The authors gratefully 
acknowledge the help of Mr. Clifford Grey in preparing the figures. The project 
was under the direct supervision of Dr. A. G. Franklin and Mr. Joseph Curro, Jr. of 
the Earthquake Engineering and Geosciences Division, Geotechnical Laboratory, 
WES. The development of the penetrometer for hazardous waste site character-
ization is sponsored jointly by the Department of Defense and the Department of 
Energy. The research effort is directed by the U.S. Army Toxic and Hazardous 
Materials Agency and is a tri-services project undertaken with the cooperation of 
the Air Force and Navy. 
The tests described and the resulting data presented herein, unless otherwise 
noted, were obtained from research conducted under the Site Characterization and 
Analysis Cone Penetrometer System Tri-services Program directed by the U.S. 
Army Corps of Engineers. Permission to publish this report was given by the Chief 
of Engineers. The views of the authors do not purport to reflect the position of the 
U.S. Department of Army or of the U.S. Department of Defense. 
References 
Lurk, P. W. et al. (1991). "Laser-induced fluorescence in contaminated soils." Pre-
sented at the SPIE International Symposium on Laser Spectroscopy, Los Angeles, 
CA, Jan. 20-25, 1991. Tech. Conf. Pap. 1434-15. 
Marks, B. J. and Singh, M. (1990). "Comparison of soil-gas and groundwater con-
taminant levels of benzene and toluene." Hazardous Mat. Control 3(6): 40-46. 
Taylor, B. D. (1989). "Environmental regulations place new responsibilities on 
property owners." pp. 3-7 in Kostecki, P. T. and Calabrese, E. l, Petroleum Con-
taminated Soils, Vol. 2, Lewis Publishers, Chelsea MI. 
Valentinetti, R. A. (1989). "Federal underground storage tank regulations and 
contaminated soils." pp. 55-60 in Kostecki, P. T. and Calabrese, E. J., Petroleum 
Contaminated Soils, Vol. 1, Lewis Publishers, Chelsea MI. 


https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1078&context=usarmyresearch

Rapid Detection of Hydrocarbon Contamination in Ground Water and Soil

Abstract

Similar works

Full text

Available Versions

DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska

UNL | Libraries