We conducted a comprehensive research project on elk in the Pine Ridge region of northwestern Nebraska from 1995 to 2002 to determine ecological factors that could be used to improve management and reduce damage. The population ranged from 120 to 150 animals, with an average calf:cow ratio of 0.5:1 and bull:cow ratio of 0.4:1. We located 21 radio-collared female elk 6,311 times during 1995 to 1997. Seasonal home ranges of 2 herds were 10 and 44 km2, while average annual home ranges of the herds were much larger (483 and 440 km2, respectively). All wintering areas (n = 21) and 80% of the calving areas (n = 22) were located on privately-owned land. Active timber harvest temporarily displaced elk, most notably during the calving season. Elk shifted home ranges in association with the seasonal availability of agricultural crops, in particular, alfalfa, oats, and winter wheat. Population models indicated that static levels of hunting mortality would lead to a stable population of about 130 elk over 10 years. Most landowners in the Pine Ridge (57%) favored free-ranging elk, but 26% were concerned about damage to agricultural crops and competition with livestock. Habitat suitability models and estimates of social carrying capacity indicate that up to 600 elk could be sustained in the Pine Ridge without significant impacts to landowners. We recommended an integrated management program used to enhance elk habitat on publicly-owned land and redistribute elk from privately-owned land

Cover, Michael

Crank, R. Daniel

Fischer, Justin

Hygnstrom, Scott

Korte, Seth

Merchant, James W.

Stillings, Bruce

English

DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska

University of Nebraska - Lincoln DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln Wildlife Damage Management Conferences -- Proceedings Wildlife Damage Management, Internet Center for 2005 Elk in Nebraska: Opportunity or Another Private-Public Land Conundrum Scott Hygnstrom University of Nebraska-Lincoln, shygnstrom1@unl.edu Michael Cover University of Nebraska-Lincoln Bruce Stillings North Dakota Department of Game and Fish, Dickinson, ND, USA R. Daniel Crank Kentucky Department of Wildlife and Fish Resources Justin Fischer USDA/APHIS/WS National Wildlife Research Center, Justin.w.fischer@aphis.usda.gov See next page for additional authors Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdm_wdmconfproc  Part of the Environmental Sciences Commons Hygnstrom, Scott; Cover, Michael; Stillings, Bruce; Crank, R. Daniel; Fischer, Justin; Merchant, James W.; and Korte, Seth, "Elk in Nebraska: Opportunity or Another Private-Public Land Conundrum" (2005). Wildlife Damage Management Conferences -- Proceedings. 138. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdm_wdmconfproc/138 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Wildlife Damage Management, Internet Center for at DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. It has been accepted for inclusion in Wildlife Damage Management Conferences -- Proceedings by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. Authors Scott Hygnstrom, Michael Cover, Bruce Stillings, R. Daniel Crank, Justin Fischer, James W. Merchant, and Seth Korte This article is available at DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln: https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdm_wdmconfproc/138   213ELK IN NEBRASKA: OPPORTUNITY OR ANOTHER PRIVATE-PUBLIC LAND CONUNDRUM  SCOTT E. HYGNSTROM, School of Natural Resources, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, USA MICHAEL A. COVER, School of Natural Resources, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, USA BRUCE A. STILLINGS, North Dakota Department of Game and Fish, Dickinson, ND, USA R. DANIEL CRANK, Kentucky Department of Wildlife and Fish Resources, Hazard, KY, USA JUSTIN W. FISCHER, USDA, APHIS, Wildlife Services, National Wildlife Research Center, Fort Collins, CO, USA JAMES W. MERCHANT, School of Natural Resources, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, USA SETH P. KORTE, School of Natural Resources, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, USA  Abstract: We conducted a comprehensive research project on elk in the Pine Ridge region of northwestern Nebraska from 1995 to 2002 to determine ecological factors that could be used to improve management and reduce damage.  The population ranged from 120 to 150 animals, with an average calf:cow ratio of 0.5:1 and bull:cow ratio of 0.4:1.  We located 21 radio-collared female elk 6,311 times during 1995 to 1997.  Seasonal home ranges of 2 herds were 10 and 44 km2, while average annual home ranges of the herds were much larger (483 and 440 km2, respectively).  All wintering areas (n = 21) and 80% of the calving areas (n = 22) were located on privately-owned land.  Active timber harvest temporarily displaced elk, most notably during the calving season.  Elk shifted home ranges in association with the seasonal availability of agricultural crops, in particular, alfalfa, oats, and winter wheat.  Population models indicated that static levels of hunting mortality would lead to a stable population of about 130 elk over 10 years.  Most landowners in the Pine Ridge (57%) favored free-ranging elk, but 26% were concerned about damage to agricultural crops and competition with livestock.  Habitat suitability models and estimates of social carrying capacity indicate that up to 600 elk could be sustained in the Pine Ridge without significant impacts to landowners.  We recommended an integrated management program used to enhance elk habitat on publicly-owned land and redistribute elk from privately-owned land.  Key words:  Cervus elaphus, elk, home range, management, Nebraska, radio-telemetry, re-introduced species  Proceedings of the 11th Wildlife Damage Management Conference. (D.L. Nolte, K.A. Fagerstone, Eds). 2005   INTRODUCTION Elk (Cervus elaphus) are native to Nebraska and roamed the Great Plains in the early 1800s.  Jones (1962) reviewed records of 19th Century sightings of elk in Nebraska and reported the first documented elk sightings by Lewis and Clark in 1803 and reports of sightings as late as the 1880s.  Elk and bison (Bison bison) were nearly eliminated during the 1830s through 1860s   214by market hunters.  Swenk (1908) reported that elk were extirpated from Nebraska about the same time as the Plains bison (B. b. bison) in the early 1880s.  In the 1960s, Rocky Mountain elk were transplanted from Yellowstone National Park to the Rawhide Buttes, near Lusk, Wyoming.  Two tagged elk from the translocated herd were observed in the Pine Ridge in 1967 and 1969.  The number of elk in Nebraska continued to increase through the 1970s and 1980s, to a level in which complaints from landowners in the Pine Ridge led to the implementation of relatively liberal hunting seasons in the late 1980s.  Elk numbers continued to increase through the 1990s to the present.   Elk provide benefits to the people of Nebraska, but also provide a management challenge to natural resource agencies.  Elk in Nebraska, unlike the western states, spend the majority of their time on privately-owned land.  Elk damage field crops, fences, and hay stacks.  The Nebraska Game and Parks Commission (NGPC) held a series of public meetings to address the future of elk and elk management in the Pine Ridge in 1995.  After reviewing the comments at each meeting, the NGPC developed an elk management plan (Nebraska Game and Parks Commission, 1995) that identified the following objectives: 1) determine the status of the elk population and maintain a minimum population of 100 elk, with at least 6 mature (6+ point) bulls, 2) respond to all depredation complaints, 3) implement prescribed hunting seasons, starting in 1995, 4) monitor the overall health of the elk population and prevent contamination of domestic livestock through removal or treatment of infected elk, and 5) provide informational and educational materials to the public, that promote free-ranging elk as a valuable component of Nebraska’s native fauna.  Research on elk in the Pine Ridge was needed to support evaluation and continuation of the NGPC management plan.  Information on the number of elk, sex/age structure, distribution, critical calving and wintering areas, effects of human disturbance, health of the elk population, and public attitudes was needed to enable the NGPC to conduct an ecologically sound elk management program.  We conducted a comprehensive research project on elk in the Pine Ridge from 1995 to 2002, in accordance with NGPC objectives, to determine ecological factors that could be used to improve management and reduce damage.    STUDY AREA  The study was conducted in the Pine Ridge region of northwestern Nebraska, which is  160 km long, 1 to 8 km wide, and covers 120,000 ha (Stillings 1999).  Two distinct study areas were used for this project; the Hat Creek area, located between Crawford and Harrison, Nebraska, and the Bordeaux Creek area, located east of Chadron, Nebraska.  The Hat Creek area encompasses 44,035 ha, consisting of 47% ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) forest (of which 14% was burned in 1989), 50% grassland, and 3% agricultural crops.  The Bordeaux Creek area encompasses 48,398 ha, consisting of 51% ponderosa pine forest, 46% grassland, and 3% agricultural crops.  Agricultural crops, including alfalfa, oats, millet, and winter wheat are available seasonally to elk, with baled hay being available throughout the year.  The 2 study areas consist of privately-owned (94%) and publicly-owned (6%) land with a limited road system that provides access to ranches.  The public land is owned by the NGPC and United States Forest Service (USFS) (Stillings 1999). The region is dominated by rugged ponderosa pine forest, interspersed with   215relatively flat grassland pastures and agricultural fields.  Predominant hardwood species associated with riparian areas include green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica) and cottonwood (Populus deltoides).  Predominant grass species include big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), and Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis) (Stillings 1999).    METHODS We captured 21 female Rocky Mountain elk by helicopter net-gunning in the Pine Ridge region of Nebraska in April 1995.  Radio-collars were placed on 10 female elk in the Bordeaux Creek area and 11 female elk in the Hat Creek area.  We located these elk by radio-telemetry and visual observation 6,311 times between April 1995 and August 1997.  We used 522 visual observations of elk to generate calf:cow and bull:cow ratios in the Bordeaux Creek and Hat Creek areas.  We developed a population model using STELLA for each herd from demographic rates determined from field observations.  We located 22 elk calving sites and 42 random locations and measured 10 micro- and 9 macro-habitat variables at each area between mid-June and July 1996 and 1997 to determine factors that affect habitat selection during calving seasons.  We identified 21 winter elk-use sites and 44 random locations and measured 10 micro- and 9 macro- habitat variables at each area between January and March of 1996 and 1997 to determine factors that affect habitat selection during winter.  We generated 72 logistic regression models and used Akaike’s Information Criterion (AIC) to determine relative probabilities of individual elk selecting use sites over randomly-located sites.   We calculated the relative proportions of habitat use by elk in the Pine Ridge from 5,787 locations of radio-collared elk.  Habitat variables (landcover type, aspect, slope, distance to road, road density, and distance from the ponderosa pine edge) were measured for each location using a Geographic Information System (GIS).  The habitat variables were also measured for a random point coverage (n = 5,787) to compare and contrast the differences, if any, between elk-use and non-use areas.  We developed a logistic regression model to describe elk habitat selection for 2 discrete, non-migratory herds of elk.  We used GIS to apply the model to the entire Pine Ridge study area and to create a map of potentially suitable elk habitat.   Blood samples were collected from 21 captured elk and 65 harvested elk from 3 study areas in Boyd, Dawes, and Sioux counties of Nebraska during 1995 to 1997, to monitor the health of the elk population.   We mailed questionnaires to all Pine Ridge landowners in 1995 and 1997 to determine their attitudes toward elk and elk management.     RESULTS AND DISCUSSION    The estimated number of elk in the Bordeaux Creek herd ranged from 59 to 77, with calf:cow ratios of 0.42-0.57:1 and bull:cow ratios of 0.29-0.42:1.  The estimated number of elk in the Hat Creek herd ranged from 61 to 72, with calf:cow ratios of 0.43-0.51:1 and bull:cow ratios of 0.44-0.51:1 (Stillings 1999).  We identified 2 distinct, nonmigratory elk herds with annual home ranges that averaged 19,359 ha and 17,614 ha for the Bordeaux and Hat Creek study areas, respectively.  Seasonal home ranges varied from 1,821 ha to 4,258 ha in winter, 2,887 ha to 4,165 ha in spring, 982 ha to 2,077 ha during calving, 1,574 ha to 4,408 ha in summer, and 1,976 ha to 4,408 ha during the breeding season (Cover 2000).  Cropland areas within winter range sites   216were used 3 times more than expected, considering their availability in both study areas.  Spring home range areas shifted to forested habitat.  Ponderosa pine habitat was used nearly 2 times more than expected, considering the availability in calving areas.  Elk used agricultural fields 5 times more than expected, considering the availability during the breeding season.  They avoided pasture areas with cattle present (Stillings 1999). Eighty percent of all calving areas (n = 22) were located on privately-owned land.  Seventy-three percent (n = 16) of elk calving areas were located in ponderosa pine forest.  The logistic regression model that best described elk use and fit the independent variables using a manual selection procedure, included: presence of cattle, average slope, habitat type, and distance from a road (AIC = 49.57) ( Stillings 1999). The model that best described winter elk habitat selection (AIC = 70.7) included the variables: road type, slope, and distance to edge (Cover 2000).  The second best fitting model (AIC = 72.5) included road type, slope, distance to edge, and hiding cover.   Odds ratios for both models suggest that elk prefer winter areas that provide increasing slope ( x = 16%, odds ratio = 1.225), distance to edge ( x = 286 m, odds ratio = 1.004), and the avoidance of areas with gravel or paved roads compared to two-track roads ( x = 74%, odds ratio = 0.016).  Areas with higher percentages of hiding cover ( x = 59%, odds ratio = 1.009) also were preferred.  All wintering areas (n = 21) were located on privately-owned land.  Application of these models may assist wildlife managers in identifying areas that could serve as potential winter-use sites. Habitat selection by elk in the Pine Ridge is largely determined by human disturbance factors and land-use patterns.  Active timber harvest was found to temporarily displace elk.  The distance between home range centers of elk exposed to logging ( x = 5554 m) was larger than the distance moved by elk not exposed to logging ( x = 3337 m) (Stillings 1999).  Elk responded to summer agricultural crops by shifting home ranges approximately 2.5 km toward crops after the second cutting of alfalfa and maturation of oats and millet during the late dough-stage.  The distribution of elk in the Bordeaux area during winter was driven by the initiation of supplemental feeding.  The elk calving season occurred at the same time as the initial stocking of cattle.  Elk responded to cattle by moving out of recently stocked pastures and reducing the size of their home ranges.  Road density and the amount of travel were the 2 most important variables quantifying differences between elk-use and non-use areas.  Areas with greater than 0.51 km of road/km2 and a road use index greater than 1650 will likely be avoided by elk (Stillings 1999). We characterized the suitability of habitat for elk in the Pine Ridge as low (34%), medium (38%), high (21%), and optimal (8%).  We estimate that the Pine Ridge region provides 140,000 ha (540 mi2) of highly to optimally suitable elk habitat (Fischer 2002).  Habitat suitability models can be used to direct management efforts to ensure that the number and distribution of elk in the Pine Ridge region is ecologically sound and socially acceptable. No titers were observed for anaplasmosis, bluetongue, or brucellosis.  Detectable antibodies for Leptosira interrogans bratislava (8 of 86, 9%) and L. i. hardjo (7 of 86, 8%) were observed in all 3 study areas (Cover 2000).  Positive sera results were found for epizootic hemorrhagic disease (2 of 86, 2%) and bovine viral disease (3 of 86, 3%) in Dawes and Sioux counties.  The low percentage of exposed elk in our sample and the low antibody titer ratios (1:100 to 1:400) suggest   217that previous exposure to infectious organisms may have occurred, but none of the 3 populations have active infections. Fifty-six percent (n = 214) of the landowners that responded to our survey in 1995 and 57% (n = 461) in 1997 were in favor of free-ranging elk (Crank 1998).  Motivation for those in favor of elk was utilitarian (opportunity to view and hunt elk), ecological (return of a native species), and economic (benefits from increased tourism and leasing land for elk hunting).  Reasons for opposition to elk were largely economic (damage to crops, competition with livestock, transmission of diseases to livestock) and convenience (dealing with elk hunters).  Attitudes toward free-ranging elk were not affected by year or presence of elk on a landowner’s property.  Landowner attitudes were influenced by region and experience with elk damage.  The mean reported cost of damage in 1997 was $929 (range = $50 to $6000) and 80% of the landowners described their damage as minor or tolerable.  Respondents who reported damage felt the population was too high, while 71% of the landowners who were in favor of elk wanted the population of elk to increase.  Most landowners (54 to 63%) were in favor of hunting seasons for elk.  Seventy-five percent of respondents in 1997 reported that they would allow elk hunting on their property, compared to 55% in 1995 (Crank 1998).  MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS While exclusion of stored hay is widely practiced, hunting is the primary management technique used to control damage caused by elk.  Population models indicate that static levels of hunting mortality would lead to a stable population of about 130 elk over 10 years.  The population could increase 4-fold in 10 years, however, if mortality by hunting were eliminated.  Most landowners in the Pine Ridge favored free-ranging elk, but 26% were concerned about damage to agricultural crops and competition with livestock.  Habitat suitability models and estimates of social carrying capacity indicate that up to 600 elk could be sustained in the Pine Ridge without significant impacts to landowners.  Increases in the level of the elk population and associated opportunities for elk hunting could be achieved by modifying the harvest structure and permitting system.  In addition, an integrated management program used to enhance elk habitat on publicly-owned land and redistribute elk from privately-owned land is warranted.  ACKNOWLEDGMENTS  The study was funded by the Nebraska Game and Parks Commission, Rocky Mountain Elk Foundation, US Forest Service, Nebraska Bowhunters Association, and University of Nebraska-Lincoln.  We thank the many landowners of the Pine Ridge who provided access to their land and support for this project.   LITERATURE CITED COVER, M.  2000.  Ecology of elk in northwestern Nebraska: Seasonal distribution, characteristics of wintering sites, and herd health.  MS Thesis, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, USA. CRANK, R.D.  1998.  Attitudes of landowners and tourists attitudes toward elk management in the Pine Ridge region of northwestern Nebraska. MS Thesis, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, USA. FISCHER, J.W.  2002.  A regional GIS-based analysis of elk habitat suitability in northwestern Nebraska.  MS Thesis, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, USA. JONES, J.K.  1962.  Early records of some mammals from Nebraska. University of Nebraska State Museum Bulletin 4:89-100.   218NEBRASKA GAME AND PARKS COMMISSION.  1995.  Nebraska elk management plan. Nebraska Game and Parks Commission, Lincoln, NE, USA.  STILLINGS, B.A.  1999.  Ecology of elk in northwestern Nebraska: Demographics, effects of human disturbance, and characteristics of calving habitat.  MS Thesis, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, USA. SWENK, M.H.  1908.  A preliminary review of the mammals of Nebraska, with synopses.  Proceedings from the Nebraska Academy of Sciences 8:61-144.               

Elk in Nebraska: Opportunity or Another Private-Public Land Conundrum

Hygnstrom, Scott E.

Cover, Michael A.

Stillings, Bruce A.

Fischer, Justin W.

Korte, Seth P.

DigitalCommons@USU

ELK IN NEBRASKA: OPPORTUNITY OR ANOTHER PRIVATE-PUBLIC LAND CONUNDRUM SCOTT E. HYGNSTROM , School of Natural Resource s, University of Nebraska , Lincoln , NE, USA MICHAEL A . COVER , School of Natural Resources , University of Nebraska , Lincoln , NE , USA BRUCE A. STILLINGS , North Dakota Department of Game and Fish , Dickinson , ND , USA R. DANIEL CRANK , Kentucky Department of Wildlife and Fish Resources , Hazard, KY , USA JUSTIN W. FISCHER , USDA , APHIS , Wildlife Services , National Wildlife Research Center , Fort Collins , CO, USA JAMES W. MERCHANT , School of Natural Resources , University of Nebraska , Lincoln , NE , USA SETH P . KORTE , School of Natural Resources , University of Nebraska , Lincoln , NE , USA Abstract: We conducted a comprehensive research project on elk in the Pine Ridge region of northwestern Nebraska from 1995 to 2002 to determine ecological factors that could be used to improve management and reduce damage. The population ranged from 120 to 150 animals , with an average calf :cow ratio of 0.5: l and bull :cow ratio of 0.4: 1. We located 21 radio-collared female elk 6,311 times during 1995 to 1997. Seasonal home ranges of 2 herds were 10 and 44 2 · 2 km , while average annual home ranges of the herds were much larger (483 and 440 km , respectively). All wintering areas (n = 21) and 80% of the calving areas (n = 22) were located on privately-owned land. Active timber harvest temporarily displaced elk , most notably during the calving season . Elk shifted home ranges in association with the seasonal availability of agricultural crops , in particular , alfalfa , oats , and winter wheat. Population models indicated that static levels of hunting mortality would lead to a stable population of about 130 elk over l 0 years . Most landowners in the Pine Ridge (57%) favored free-ranging elk, but 26% were concerned about damage to agricultural crops and competition with livestock . Habitat suitability models and estimates of social carrying capacity indicate that up to 600 elk could be sustained in the Pine Ridge without significant impacts to landowner s. We recommended an integrated management program used to enhance elk habitat on publicly-owned land and redistribute elk from privately-owned land. Key words: Cervus elaphus , elk , home range , management , Nebraska , radio-telemetry , re-introduced species INTRODUCTION Elk (Cervus elaphus) are native to Nebraska and roamed the Great Plains in the early 1800s. Jones ( 1962) reviewed records of 19th Century sightings of elk in Nebraska 213 Proceedings of the 11th Wildlife Damage Management Conference. (D.L. Nolte , K.A. Fagerstone , Eds). 2005 and reported the first documented elk sightings by Lewis and Clark in 1803 and reports of sightings as late as the 1880s. Elk and bison (Bison bison) were nearly eliminated during the 1830s through 1860s by market hunters. Swenk ( 1908) reported that elk were extirpated from Nebraska about the same time as the Plains bison (B. Q. bison) in the early 1880s. In the 1960s, Rocky Mountain elk were transplanted from Yellowstone National Park to the Rawhide Buttes , near Lusk, Wyoming. Two tagged elk from the translocated herd were observed in the Pine Ridge in 1967 and 1969. The number of elk in Nebraska continued to increase through the 1970s and 1980s, to a level in which complaints from landowners in the Pine Ridge led to the implementation of relatively liberal hunting seasons in the late 1980s. Elk numbers continued to increase through the 1990s to the present. Elk provide benefits to the people of Nebraska, but also provide a management challenge to natural resource agencies. Elk in Nebraska, unlike the western states, spend the majority of their time on privately-owned land . Elk damage field crops, fences, and hay stacks. The Nebraska Game and Parks Commission (NGPC) held a series of public meetings to address the future of elk and elk management in the Pine Ridge in 1995. After reviewing the comments at each meeting, the NGPC developed an elk management plan (Nebraska Game and Parks Commission, 1995) that identified the following objectives: 1) determine the status of the elk population and maintain a minimum population of 100 elk, with at least 6 mature (6+ point) bulls, 2) respond to all depredation complaints, 3) implement prescribed hunting seasons, starting in 1995, 4) monitor the overall health of the elk population and prevent contamination of domestic livestock through removal or treatment of infected elk, and 5) provide informational and educational materials to the public, that promote free-ranging elk as a valuable component of Nebraska's native fauna. 214 Research on elk in the Pine Ridge was needed to support evaluation and continuation of the NGPC management plan. Information on the number of elk, sex/age structure , distribution, critical calving and wintering areas , effects of human disturbance, health of the elk population , and public attitudes was needed to enable the NGPC to conduct an ecologically sound elk management program. We conducted a comprehensive research project on elk in the Pine Ridge from 1995 to 2002, in accordance with NGPC objectives, to determine ecological factors that could be used to improve management and reduce damage. STUDY AREA The study was conducted in the Pine Ridge region of northwestern Nebraska, which is 160 km long , 1 to 8 km wide, and covers _120,000 ha (Stillings 1999). Two distinct study areas were used for this project; the Hat Creek area, located between Crawford and Harrison , Nebraska, and the Bordeaux Creek area, located east of Chadron , Nebraska . The Hat Creek area encompasses 44,035 ha, consisting of 47% ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) forest ( of which 14% was burned in 1989), 50% grassland, and 3% agricultural crops . The Bordeaux Creek area encompasses 48,398 ha, consisting of 51 % ponderosa pine forest, 46% grassland, and 3% agricultural crops . Agricultural crops, including alfalfa , oats, millet, and winter wheat are available seasonally to elk, with baled hay being available throughout the year. The 2 study areas consist of privately -owned (94%) and publicly-owned (6%) land with a limited road system that provides access to ranches. The public land is owned by the NGPC and United States Forest Service (USFS) (Stillings 1999). The region is dominated by rugged ponderosa pine forest, interspersed with relatively flat grassland pastures and agricultural fields. Predominant hardwood species associated with riparian areas include green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica) and cottonwood (Populus deltoides). Predominant grass species include big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii) , little bluestem (Schizachy rium scoparium) , and Kentucky bluegrass (Paa pratensis) (Stillings 1999). METHODS We captured 21 female Rocky Mountain elk by helicopter net-gunning in the Pine Ridge region of Nebraska in April 1995. Radio-collars were placed on 10 female elk in the Bordeaux Creek area and 11 female elk in the Hat Creek area. We located these elk by radio-telemetry and visual observation 6,311 times between April 1995 and August 1997. We used 522 visual observations of elk to generate calf:cow and bull:cow ratios in the Bordeaux Creek and Hat Creek areas. We developed a population model using STELLA for each herd from demographic rates determined from field observations . We located 22 elk calving sites and 42 random locations and measured 10 micro- and 9 macro-habitat variables at each area between mid-June and July 1996 and 1997 to determine factors that affect habitat selection during calving seasons. We identified 21 winter elk-use sites and 44 random locations and measured 10 micro-and 9 macro- habitat variables at each area between January and March of 1996 and 1997 to determine factors that affect habitat selection during winter. We generated 72 logistic regression models and used Akaike 's Information Criterion (AIC) to determine relative probabilities of individual elk selecting use sites over randomly-located sites. We calculated the relative proportions of habitat use by elk in the Pine 215 Ridge from 5,787 locations of radio-collared elk . Habitat variables (landcover type , aspect , slope , distance to road , road density, and distance from the ponderosa pine edge) were measured for each location using a Geographic Information System (GIS). The habitat variables were also measured for a random point coverage (n = 5,787) to compare and contrast the differences, if any , between elk-use and non-use areas. We developed a logistic regression model to describe elk habitat selection for 2 discrete , non-migratory herds of elk. We used GIS to apply the model to the entire Pine Ridge study area and to create a map of potentially suitable elk habitat. Blood samples were collected from 21 captured elk and 65 harvested elk from 3 study areas in Boyd , Dawes , and Sioux counties of Nebraska during 1995 to 1997, to monitor the health of the elk population. We mailed questionnaires to all Pine Ridge landowners in 1995 and 1997 to determine their attitudes toward elk and elk management. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The estimated number of elk in the Bordeaux Creek herd ranged from 59 to 77, with calf:cow ratios of 0.42-0.57: I and bull :cow ratios of 0.29-0.42: l. The estimated number of elk in the Hat Creek herd ranged from 61 to 72, with calf:cow ratios of 0.43-0.51: 1 and bull:cow ratios of 0.44-0.51: 1 (Stillings 1999). We identified 2 distinct , nonmigratory elk herds with annual home ranges that averaged 19,359 ha and 17,614 ha for the Bordeaux and Hat Creek study areas , respectively . Seasonal home ranges varied from 1,821 ha to 4,258 ha in winter, 2,887 ha to 4,165 ha in spring, 982 ha to 2,077 ha during calving, 1,574 ha to 4,408 ha in summer, and 1,976 ha to 4,408 ha during the breeding season (Cover 2000). Cropland areas within winter range sites were used 3 times more than expected, considering their availability in both study areas. Spring home range areas shifted to forested habitat. Ponderosa pine habitat was used nearly 2 times more than expected, considering the availability in calving areas. Elk used agricultural fields 5 times more than expected, considering the availability during the breeding season. They avoided pasture areas with cattle present (Stillings 1999) . Eighty percent of all calving areas (n = 22) were located on privately-owned land. Seventy-three percent (n = 16) of elk calving areas were located in ponderosa pine forest. The logistic regression model that best described elk use and fit the independent variables usmg a manual selection procedure, included: presence of cattle, average slope, habitat type, and distance from a road (AIC = 49.57) ( Stillings 1999). The model that best described winter elk habitat selection (AIC = 70.7) included the variables: road type, slope, and distance to edge (Cover 2000). The second best fitting model (AIC = 72.5) included road type , slope, distance to edge , and hiding cover. Odds ratios for both models suggest that elk prefer winter areas that provide increasing slope ( x = 16%, odds ratio = 1.225), distance to edge ( x = 286 m, odds ratio = 1.004), and the avoidance of areas with gravel or paved roads compared to two-track roads (x= 74%, odds ratio= 0.016). Areas with higher percentages of hiding cover ( x = 59%, odds ratio = 1.009) also were preferred. All wintering areas (n = 21) were located on privately -owned land. Application of these models may assist wildlife managers in identifying areas that could serve as potential winter -use sites. Habitat selection by elk in the Pine Ridge is largely determined by human disturbance factors and land-use patterns. Active timber harvest was found to temporarily displace elk. The distance 216 between home range centers of elk eicposed to logging ( x = 5554 m) was larger than the distance moved by elk not expened to logging ( x = 333 7 m) (Stillings 199~)- Elk responded to summer agricultural cDps by shifting home ranges approximately 2.5 km toward crops after the second cutting of alfalfa and maturation of oats and millet during the late dough-stage. The distribution of elk in the Bordealll( area during winter was driven by the initi,tion of supplemental feeding. The elk calving season occurred at the same time as the initial stocking of cattle. Elk respmded to cattle by moving out of recently 1tocked pastures and reducing the size of ther home ranges. Road density and the ammnt of travel were the 2 most important vc.riables quantifying differences between elk- 1tse and non-use areas. Areas with greater thm 0.51 km of road/km 2 and a road use index greater than 1650 will likely be avoided y elk (Stillings 1999). We characterized the suitaMity of habitat for elk in the Pine Ridge 1s low (34%), medium (38%), high (21 o/.), and optimal (8%). We estimate that tte Pine Ridge region provides 140,000 ha (5+0 mi2) of highly to optimally suitable elk habitat (Fischer 2002). Habitat suitability nodels can be used to direct management eforts to ensure that the number and distribu:ion of elk in the Pine Ridge region is ecolcgically sound and socially acceptable. No titers were observei for anaplasmosis, bluetongue, or brucellosis. Detectable antibodies for Lwtosira interrogans bratislava (8 of 86, 9%) and L. i. hardjo (7 of 86, 8%) were observei in all 3 study areas (Cover 2000). Positi 1e sera results were found for epzootic hemorrhagic disease (2 of 86, 2%) and bovine viral disease (3 of 86, 3%) in Dawes and Sioux counties. The low percertage of exposed elk in our sample and tie low antibody titer ratios ( 1: 100 to 1 :400) ;uggest that prev10us exposure to infectious organisms may have occurred, but none of the 3 populations have active infections. Fifty-six percent (n = 214) of the landowners that responded to our survey in 1995 and 57% (n = 461) in 1997 were in favor of free-ranging elk (Crank 1998). Motivation for those in favor of elk was utilitarian ( opportunity to view and hunt elk) , ecological (return of a native species), and economic (benefits from increased tourism and leasing land for elk hunting) . Reasons for opposition to elk were largely economic ( damage to crops , competition with livestock , transmission of diseases to livestock) and convenience (dealing with elk hunters). Attitudes toward free-ranging elk were not affected by year or presence of elk on a landowner's property. Landowner attitudes were influenced by region and experience with elk damage. The mean reported cost of damage in 1997 was $929 (range = $50 to $6000) and 80% of the landowners described their damage as minor or tolerable. Respondents who reported damage felt the population was too high , while 71 % of the landowners who were in favor of elk wanted the population of elk to increase . Most landowners (54 to 63%) were in favor of hunting seasons for elk. Seventy-five percent of respondents in 1997 reported that they would allow elk hunting on their property , compared to 55% in 1995 (Crank 1998). MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS While exclusion of stored hay is widely practiced , hunting is the primary management technique used to control damage caused by elk. Population models indicate that static levels of hunting mortality would lead to a stable population of about 130 elk over IO years. The population could increase 4-fold in IO years, however , if mortality by hunting were eliminated. Most landowners in the Pine 217 Ridge favored free-ranging elk, but 26% were concerned about damage to agricultural crops and competition with livestock . Habitat suitability models and estimates of social carrying capacity indicate that up to 600 elk could be sustained in the Pine Ridge without significant impacts to landowners. Increases in the level of the elk population and associated opportunities for elk hunting could be achieved by modifying the harvest structure and permitting system. In addition, an integrated management program used to enhance elk habitat on publicly-owned land and redistribute elk from privately-owned land is warranted. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The study was funded by the Nebraska Game and Parks Commission, Rocky Mountain Elk Foundation , US Forest Service , Nebraska Bowhunters Association , and University of Nebraska-Lincoln. We thank the many landowners of the Pine Ridge who provided access to their land and support for this project. LITERATURE CITED COVER, M . 2000. Ecology of elk in northwestern Nebraska: Seasonal distribution , characteristics of wintering sites, and herd health . MS Thesis , University of Nebraska, Lincoln , NE, USA. CRANK, R.D. 1998. Attitudes of landowners and tourists attitudes toward elk management in the Pine Ridge region of northwestern Nebraska. MS Thesis, University of Nebraska , Lincoln, NE, USA. FISCH ER, J.W . 2002. A regional GIS-based analysis of elk habitat suitability in northwestern Nebraska. MS Thesis , University of Nebraska , Lincoln, NE, USA. JONES , J.K. I 962 . Early records of some mammals from Nebraska. University of Nebraska State Museum Bulletin 4:89-100. NEBRASKA GAME AND PARKS COMMISSION. 1995. Nebraska elk management plan . Nebraska Game and Parks Commission , Lincoln, NE , USA. STILUNGS, B.A. 1999. Ecology of elk in northwestern Nebraska: Demographics, effects of human disturbance , and characteristics of calving habitat. MS Thesis, University of Nebraska, Lincoln , NE , USA. SWENK, M.H. 1908. A preliminary review of the mammals of Nebraska, with synopses. Proceedings from the Nebraska Academy of Sciences 8:61-144. 218 

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Wildlife Damage Management Conferences -- 
Proceedings 
Wildlife Damage Management, Internet Center 
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2005 
Elk in Nebraska: Opportunity or Another Private-Public Land 
Conundrum 
Scott Hygnstrom 
University of Nebraska-Lincoln, shygnstrom1@unl.edu 
Michael Cover 
University of Nebraska-Lincoln 
Bruce Stillings 
North Dakota Department of Game and Fish, Dickinson, ND, USA 
R. Daniel Crank 
Kentucky Department of Wildlife and Fish Resources 
Justin Fischer 
USDA/APHIS/WS National Wildlife Research Center, Justin.w.fischer@aphis.usda.gov 
See next page for additional authors 
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Hygnstrom, Scott; Cover, Michael; Stillings, Bruce; Crank, R. Daniel; Fischer, Justin; Merchant, James W.; 
and Korte, Seth, "Elk in Nebraska: Opportunity or Another Private-Public Land Conundrum" (2005). Wildlife 
Damage Management Conferences -- Proceedings. 138. 
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Authors 
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Seth Korte 
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  213
ELK IN NEBRASKA: OPPORTUNITY OR ANOTHER PRIVATE-PUBLIC LAND 
CONUNDRUM 
 
SCOTT E. HYGNSTROM, School of Natural Resources, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, 
USA 
MICHAEL A. COVER, School of Natural Resources, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, 
USA 
BRUCE A. STILLINGS, North Dakota Department of Game and Fish, Dickinson, ND, USA 
R. DANIEL CRANK, Kentucky Department of Wildlife and Fish Resources, Hazard, KY, USA 
JUSTIN W. FISCHER, USDA, APHIS, Wildlife Services, National Wildlife Research Center, 
Fort Collins, CO, USA 
JAMES W. MERCHANT, School of Natural Resources, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, 
USA 
SETH P. KORTE, School of Natural Resources, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, USA 
 
Abstract: We conducted a comprehensive research project on elk in the Pine Ridge region of 
northwestern Nebraska from 1995 to 2002 to determine ecological factors that could be used to 
improve management and reduce damage.  The population ranged from 120 to 150 animals, with 
an average calf:cow ratio of 0.5:1 and bull:cow ratio of 0.4:1.  We located 21 radio-collared 
female elk 6,311 times during 1995 to 1997.  Seasonal home ranges of 2 herds were 10 and 44 
km2, while average annual home ranges of the herds were much larger (483 and 440 km2, 
respectively).  All wintering areas (n = 21) and 80% of the calving areas (n = 22) were located on 
privately-owned land.  Active timber harvest temporarily displaced elk, most notably during the 
calving season.  Elk shifted home ranges in association with the seasonal availability of 
agricultural crops, in particular, alfalfa, oats, and winter wheat.  Population models indicated that 
static levels of hunting mortality would lead to a stable population of about 130 elk over 10 
years.  Most landowners in the Pine Ridge (57%) favored free-ranging elk, but 26% were 
concerned about damage to agricultural crops and competition with livestock.  Habitat suitability 
models and estimates of social carrying capacity indicate that up to 600 elk could be sustained in 
the Pine Ridge without significant impacts to landowners.  We recommended an integrated 
management program used to enhance elk habitat on publicly-owned land and redistribute elk 
from privately-owned land. 
 
Key words:  Cervus elaphus, elk, home range, management, Nebraska, radio-telemetry, re-
introduced species 
 
Proceedings of the 11th Wildlife Damage 
Management Conference. (D.L. Nolte, K.A. 
Fagerstone, Eds). 2005 
 
 
INTRODUCTION 
Elk (Cervus elaphus) are native to 
Nebraska and roamed the Great Plains in the 
early 1800s.  Jones (1962) reviewed records 
of 19th Century sightings of elk in Nebraska 
and reported the first documented elk 
sightings by Lewis and Clark in 1803 and 
reports of sightings as late as the 1880s.  Elk 
and bison (Bison bison) were nearly 
eliminated during the 1830s through 1860s 
  214
by market hunters.  Swenk (1908) reported 
that elk were extirpated from Nebraska 
about the same time as the Plains bison (B. 
b. bison) in the early 1880s. 
 In the 1960s, Rocky Mountain elk 
were transplanted from Yellowstone 
National Park to the Rawhide Buttes, near 
Lusk, Wyoming.  Two tagged elk from the 
translocated herd were observed in the Pine 
Ridge in 1967 and 1969.  The number of elk 
in Nebraska continued to increase through 
the 1970s and 1980s, to a level in which 
complaints from landowners in the Pine 
Ridge led to the implementation of relatively 
liberal hunting seasons in the late 1980s.  
Elk numbers continued to increase through 
the 1990s to the present.  
 Elk provide benefits to the people of 
Nebraska, but also provide a management 
challenge to natural resource agencies.  Elk 
in Nebraska, unlike the western states, spend 
the majority of their time on privately-
owned land.  Elk damage field crops, fences, 
and hay stacks.  The Nebraska Game and 
Parks Commission (NGPC) held a series of 
public meetings to address the future of elk 
and elk management in the Pine Ridge in 
1995.  After reviewing the comments at each 
meeting, the NGPC developed an elk 
management plan (Nebraska Game and 
Parks Commission, 1995) that identified the 
following objectives: 1) determine the status 
of the elk population and maintain a 
minimum population of 100 elk, with at 
least 6 mature (6+ point) bulls, 2) respond to 
all depredation complaints, 3) implement 
prescribed hunting seasons, starting in 1995, 
4) monitor the overall health of the elk 
population and prevent contamination of 
domestic livestock through removal or 
treatment of infected elk, and 5) provide 
informational and educational materials to 
the public, that promote free-ranging elk as a 
valuable component of Nebraska’s native 
fauna. 
 Research on elk in the Pine Ridge 
was needed to support evaluation and 
continuation of the NGPC management 
plan.  Information on the number of elk, 
sex/age structure, distribution, critical 
calving and wintering areas, effects of 
human disturbance, health of the elk 
population, and public attitudes was needed 
to enable the NGPC to conduct an 
ecologically sound elk management 
program.  We conducted a comprehensive 
research project on elk in the Pine Ridge 
from 1995 to 2002, in accordance with 
NGPC objectives, to determine ecological 
factors that could be used to improve 
management and reduce damage.   
 
STUDY AREA  
The study was conducted in the Pine 
Ridge region of northwestern Nebraska, 
which is  160 km long, 1 to 8 km wide, and 
covers 120,000 ha (Stillings 1999).  Two 
distinct study areas were used for this 
project; the Hat Creek area, located between 
Crawford and Harrison, Nebraska, and the 
Bordeaux Creek area, located east of 
Chadron, Nebraska.  The Hat Creek area 
encompasses 44,035 ha, consisting of 47% 
ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) forest (of 
which 14% was burned in 1989), 50% 
grassland, and 3% agricultural crops.  The 
Bordeaux Creek area encompasses 48,398 
ha, consisting of 51% ponderosa pine forest, 
46% grassland, and 3% agricultural crops.  
Agricultural crops, including alfalfa, oats, 
millet, and winter wheat are available 
seasonally to elk, with baled hay being 
available throughout the year.  The 2 study 
areas consist of privately-owned (94%) and 
publicly-owned (6%) land with a limited 
road system that provides access to ranches.  
The public land is owned by the NGPC and 
United States Forest Service (USFS) 
(Stillings 1999). 
The region is dominated by rugged 
ponderosa pine forest, interspersed with 
  215
relatively flat grassland pastures and 
agricultural fields.  Predominant hardwood 
species associated with riparian areas 
include green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica) 
and cottonwood (Populus deltoides).  
Predominant grass species include big 
bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), little 
bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), and 
Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis) 
(Stillings 1999).   
 
METHODS 
We captured 21 female Rocky 
Mountain elk by helicopter net-gunning in 
the Pine Ridge region of Nebraska in April 
1995.  Radio-collars were placed on 10 
female elk in the Bordeaux Creek area and 
11 female elk in the Hat Creek area.  We 
located these elk by radio-telemetry and 
visual observation 6,311 times between 
April 1995 and August 1997.  We used 522 
visual observations of elk to generate 
calf:cow and bull:cow ratios in the Bordeaux 
Creek and Hat Creek areas.  We developed a 
population model using STELLA for each 
herd from demographic rates determined 
from field observations.  
We located 22 elk calving sites and 
42 random locations and measured 10 
micro- and 9 macro-habitat variables at each 
area between mid-June and July 1996 and 
1997 to determine factors that affect habitat 
selection during calving seasons.  We 
identified 21 winter elk-use sites and 44 
random locations and measured 10 micro- 
and 9 macro- habitat variables at each area 
between January and March of 1996 and 
1997 to determine factors that affect habitat 
selection during winter.  We generated 72 
logistic regression models and used 
Akaike’s Information Criterion (AIC) to 
determine relative probabilities of individual 
elk selecting use sites over randomly-located 
sites.   
We calculated the relative 
proportions of habitat use by elk in the Pine 
Ridge from 5,787 locations of radio-collared 
elk.  Habitat variables (landcover type, 
aspect, slope, distance to road, road density, 
and distance from the ponderosa pine edge) 
were measured for each location using a 
Geographic Information System (GIS).  The 
habitat variables were also measured for a 
random point coverage (n = 5,787) to 
compare and contrast the differences, if any, 
between elk-use and non-use areas.  We 
developed a logistic regression model to 
describe elk habitat selection for 2 discrete, 
non-migratory herds of elk.  We used GIS to 
apply the model to the entire Pine Ridge 
study area and to create a map of potentially 
suitable elk habitat.   
Blood samples were collected from 
21 captured elk and 65 harvested elk from 3 
study areas in Boyd, Dawes, and Sioux 
counties of Nebraska during 1995 to 1997, 
to monitor the health of the elk population.   
We mailed questionnaires to all Pine 
Ridge landowners in 1995 and 1997 to 
determine their attitudes toward elk and elk 
management.    
 
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION   
 The estimated number of elk in the 
Bordeaux Creek herd ranged from 59 to 77, 
with calf:cow ratios of 0.42-0.57:1 and 
bull:cow ratios of 0.29-0.42:1.  The 
estimated number of elk in the Hat Creek 
herd ranged from 61 to 72, with calf:cow 
ratios of 0.43-0.51:1 and bull:cow ratios of 
0.44-0.51:1 (Stillings 1999). 
 We identified 2 distinct, 
nonmigratory elk herds with annual home 
ranges that averaged 19,359 ha and 17,614 
ha for the Bordeaux and Hat Creek study 
areas, respectively.  Seasonal home ranges 
varied from 1,821 ha to 4,258 ha in winter, 
2,887 ha to 4,165 ha in spring, 982 ha to 
2,077 ha during calving, 1,574 ha to 4,408 
ha in summer, and 1,976 ha to 4,408 ha 
during the breeding season (Cover 2000).  
Cropland areas within winter range sites 
  216
were used 3 times more than expected, 
considering their availability in both study 
areas.  Spring home range areas shifted to 
forested habitat.  Ponderosa pine habitat was 
used nearly 2 times more than expected, 
considering the availability in calving areas.  
Elk used agricultural fields 5 times more 
than expected, considering the availability 
during the breeding season.  They avoided 
pasture areas with cattle present (Stillings 
1999). 
Eighty percent of all calving areas (n 
= 22) were located on privately-owned land.  
Seventy-three percent (n = 16) of elk calving 
areas were located in ponderosa pine forest.  
The logistic regression model that best 
described elk use and fit the independent 
variables using a manual selection 
procedure, included: presence of cattle, 
average slope, habitat type, and distance 
from a road (AIC = 49.57) ( Stillings 1999). 
The model that best described winter 
elk habitat selection (AIC = 70.7) included 
the variables: road type, slope, and distance 
to edge (Cover 2000).  The second best 
fitting model (AIC = 72.5) included road 
type, slope, distance to edge, and hiding 
cover.   Odds ratios for both models suggest 
that elk prefer winter areas that provide 
increasing slope ( x = 16%, odds ratio = 
1.225), distance to edge ( x = 286 m, odds 
ratio = 1.004), and the avoidance of areas 
with gravel or paved roads compared to two-
track roads ( x = 74%, odds ratio = 0.016).  
Areas with higher percentages of hiding 
cover ( x = 59%, odds ratio = 1.009) also 
were preferred.  All wintering areas (n = 21) 
were located on privately-owned land.  
Application of these models may assist 
wildlife managers in identifying areas that 
could serve as potential winter-use sites. 
Habitat selection by elk in the Pine 
Ridge is largely determined by human 
disturbance factors and land-use patterns.  
Active timber harvest was found to 
temporarily displace elk.  The distance 
between home range centers of elk exposed 
to logging ( x = 5554 m) was larger than the 
distance moved by elk not exposed to 
logging ( x = 3337 m) (Stillings 1999).  Elk 
responded to summer agricultural crops by 
shifting home ranges approximately 2.5 km 
toward crops after the second cutting of 
alfalfa and maturation of oats and millet 
during the late dough-stage.  The 
distribution of elk in the Bordeaux area 
during winter was driven by the initiation of 
supplemental feeding.  The elk calving 
season occurred at the same time as the 
initial stocking of cattle.  Elk responded to 
cattle by moving out of recently stocked 
pastures and reducing the size of their home 
ranges.  Road density and the amount of 
travel were the 2 most important variables 
quantifying differences between elk-use and 
non-use areas.  Areas with greater than 0.51 
km of road/km2 and a road use index greater 
than 1650 will likely be avoided by elk 
(Stillings 1999). 
We characterized the suitability of 
habitat for elk in the Pine Ridge as low 
(34%), medium (38%), high (21%), and 
optimal (8%).  We estimate that the Pine 
Ridge region provides 140,000 ha (540 mi2) 
of highly to optimally suitable elk habitat 
(Fischer 2002).  Habitat suitability models 
can be used to direct management efforts to 
ensure that the number and distribution of 
elk in the Pine Ridge region is ecologically 
sound and socially acceptable. 
No titers were observed for 
anaplasmosis, bluetongue, or brucellosis.  
Detectable antibodies for Leptosira 
interrogans bratislava (8 of 86, 9%) and L. 
i. hardjo (7 of 86, 8%) were observed in all 
3 study areas (Cover 2000).  Positive sera 
results were found for epizootic 
hemorrhagic disease (2 of 86, 2%) and 
bovine viral disease (3 of 86, 3%) in Dawes 
and Sioux counties.  The low percentage of 
exposed elk in our sample and the low 
antibody titer ratios (1:100 to 1:400) suggest 
  217
that previous exposure to infectious 
organisms may have occurred, but none of 
the 3 populations have active infections. 
Fifty-six percent (n = 214) of the 
landowners that responded to our survey in 
1995 and 57% (n = 461) in 1997 were in 
favor of free-ranging elk (Crank 1998).  
Motivation for those in favor of elk was 
utilitarian (opportunity to view and hunt 
elk), ecological (return of a native species), 
and economic (benefits from increased 
tourism and leasing land for elk hunting).  
Reasons for opposition to elk were largely 
economic (damage to crops, competition 
with livestock, transmission of diseases to 
livestock) and convenience (dealing with elk 
hunters).  Attitudes toward free-ranging elk 
were not affected by year or presence of elk 
on a landowner’s property.  Landowner 
attitudes were influenced by region and 
experience with elk damage.  The mean 
reported cost of damage in 1997 was $929 
(range = $50 to $6000) and 80% of the 
landowners described their damage as minor 
or tolerable.  Respondents who reported 
damage felt the population was too high, 
while 71% of the landowners who were in 
favor of elk wanted the population of elk to 
increase.  Most landowners (54 to 63%) 
were in favor of hunting seasons for elk.  
Seventy-five percent of respondents in 1997 
reported that they would allow elk hunting 
on their property, compared to 55% in 1995 
(Crank 1998). 
 
MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS 
While exclusion of stored hay is 
widely practiced, hunting is the primary 
management technique used to control 
damage caused by elk.  Population models 
indicate that static levels of hunting 
mortality would lead to a stable population 
of about 130 elk over 10 years.  The 
population could increase 4-fold in 10 years, 
however, if mortality by hunting were 
eliminated.  Most landowners in the Pine 
Ridge favored free-ranging elk, but 26% 
were concerned about damage to 
agricultural crops and competition with 
livestock.  Habitat suitability models and 
estimates of social carrying capacity indicate 
that up to 600 elk could be sustained in the 
Pine Ridge without significant impacts to 
landowners.  Increases in the level of the elk 
population and associated opportunities for 
elk hunting could be achieved by modifying 
the harvest structure and permitting system.  
In addition, an integrated management 
program used to enhance elk habitat on 
publicly-owned land and redistribute elk 
from privately-owned land is warranted. 
 
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 
 The study was funded by the 
Nebraska Game and Parks Commission, 
Rocky Mountain Elk Foundation, US Forest 
Service, Nebraska Bowhunters Association, 
and University of Nebraska-Lincoln.  We 
thank the many landowners of the Pine 
Ridge who provided access to their land and 
support for this project.  
 
LITERATURE CITED 
COVER, M.  2000.  Ecology of elk in 
northwestern Nebraska: Seasonal 
distribution, characteristics of wintering 
sites, and herd health.  MS Thesis, 
University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, 
USA. 
CRANK, R.D.  1998.  Attitudes of landowners 
and tourists attitudes toward elk 
management in the Pine Ridge region of 
northwestern Nebraska. MS Thesis, 
University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, 
USA. 
FISCHER, J.W.  2002.  A regional GIS-based 
analysis of elk habitat suitability in 
northwestern Nebraska.  MS Thesis, 
University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, 
USA. 
JONES, J.K.  1962.  Early records of some 
mammals from Nebraska. University of 
Nebraska State Museum Bulletin 4:89-
100. 
  218
NEBRASKA GAME AND PARKS COMMISSION.  
1995.  Nebraska elk management plan. 
Nebraska Game and Parks Commission, 
Lincoln, NE, USA.  
STILLINGS, B.A.  1999.  Ecology of elk in 
northwestern Nebraska: Demographics, 
effects of human disturbance, and 
characteristics of calving habitat.  MS 
Thesis, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, 
NE, USA. 
SWENK, M.H.  1908.  A preliminary review of 
the mammals of Nebraska, with 
synopses.  Proceedings from the 
Nebraska Academy of Sciences 8:61-
144. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 


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Elk in Nebraska: Opportunity or Another Private-Public Land Conundrum

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