The aim of the paper is to present the issue of using computer-aided methods as well as 3D printing technologies and not typical materials connected with it. Selected problems that can occur while applying computer-aided methods and their solutions have also been described

Migus, Marcin

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MARCIN MIGUS*, KAROL OSOWSKI**, ARTUR OLSZAK***, 
ANDRZEJ KĘSY**, ZBIGNIEW KĘSY**
COMPUTER-AIDED MACHINE DESIGN WITH REGARD 
TO NEW TECHNOLOGIES AND MATERIALS
KOMPUTEROWE WSPOMAGANIE W BUDOWIE MASZYN 
Z UWZGLĘDNIENIEM NOWYCH TECHNOLOGII  
I MATERIAŁÓW
A b s t r a c t
The aim of the paper is to present the issue of using computer-aided methods as well as 3D printing 
technologies and not typical materials connected with it. Selected problems that can occur while applying 
computer-aided methods and their solutions have also been described.
Keywords: computer-aided methods, design, high-speed machining, 3D printing, design problems
S t r e s z c z e n i e
W artykule przedstawiono zagadnienie wykorzystania metod komputerowego wspomagania konstruowania 
oraz wytwarzania z użyciem technologii drukowania 3D oraz związanych z tą technologią nietypowych 
materiałów. Opisano wybrane problemy, jakie występują podczas stosowania metod komputerowego 
wspomagania w praktyce inżynierskiej. Przedstawiono sposoby rozwiązania tych problemów.
Słowa kluczowe: metody  komputerowego  wspomagania,  konstruowanie,  obróbka  szybkościowa, 
drukowanie 3D, problemy konstrukcyjne
∗ Ph.D. Eng. Marcin Migus, The State School of Higher Education in Sandomierz.
∗∗ M.Sc. Karol Osowski, Prof. Ph.D. Eng. Andrzej Kęsy, Prof. Ph.D. Eng. Zbigniew Kęsy, Institute 
of Applied Mechanics and Energetics, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Kazimierz Pulaski 
University of Technology and Humanities in Radom.
∗∗∗ Ph.D. Eng. Artur Olszak, New Chemical Syntheses Institute in Puławy.
166
1. Introduction 
Currently, computer-aided engineering work plays an important role in machine design. 
The design process as well as the production process may be supported with new methods 
and technologies.  
Computer-aided design can be used in the preliminary stage of the machine design process 
[1]. The result is the increase in the accuracy and the calculation design time reduction as 
well as the possibility of construction optimization [2].
Due to the development of computer-aided design, new design technologies appeared. 
They are: high-speed machining carried out using CNC machine tools and an additive 
manufacturing method using 3D printers. New technologies for the machine part design 
caused the application of materials that have not been widely used yet [3].
However, despite a considerable progress in the development of new technologies, 
including the software for computer-aided design of machine parts in practical applications, 
there is a number of new problems requiring unusual approach from the constructor.
The article presents selected examples of problems that occur when using computer-aided 
engineering works concerning calculations, virtual model design and 3D printing technology, 
including the use of not typical materials. In addition, ways to solve these problems have 
been suggested.
2. Calculation of non-Newtonian fluid flows
In order to meet requirements to design a machine part, as soon as materials with new 
properties have been produced the constructor looks forward to using them as soon as 
possible.
The main obstacle in practical applications is the lack of theoretical basis regarding 
behaviors of these new materials while influenced by different factors. This is due to the fact 
that basic research is costly and time-consuming. One of the ways to solve this problem is 
modifying traditional calculation methods, in order to find a way to carry out calculations 
with sufficient accuracy for the construction process.
In machine design, two kinds of smart fluids are used: magnetorheological fluids, 
responding to the magnetic field presence and electrorheological fluids, activated when using 
the electric field [4, 5]. An important feature of these fluids is that their rheological properties 
can be described by the Newtonian model, but only in the absence of the physical field 
(magnetic or electric), according to the equation:
  (1)
where:
 τ – shear stress,
 μ  – viscosity,
 γ  – shear rate.
τ µ γ= ⋅ 
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To simulate the behavior of smart fluids in the presence of a suitable physical field, non-
Newtonian rheological models have been used (e.g. Herschel-Bukley, Ostwald-de Waele), 
but the Bingham’s model is the most commonly used:
  (2)
where:
 μp – plastic viscosity,
 τ0 – yield stress.
During the process of machine design using magnetorheological or electrorheological 
fluids, it is often necessary to carry out calculations for the right fluid flow, e.g.: calculations 
of fluid flow rate through the work channels based on the dimensions of these channels 
and pressure decrease along the channels. In case of channels with the simple structure 
(rectangular or cylindrical), such calculations can be carried out on the basis of analytical 
equations [6].
For channels with more complicated shapes, it is necessary to carry out numerical 
calculations. The Navier-Stokes equation for describing the motion of the Newtonian fluid 
with constant viscosity μ [7] is commonly used for flow calculations. However, this equation 
cannot be used directly for the magnetorheological or electrorheological fluid flow because 
these fluids are non-Newtonian.
To enable calculations of non-Newtonian fluid flow, the concept of apparent viscosity μa, 
which is treated as viscosity μ has been introduced. Small changes in shear rate γ  have been 
taken into consideration [8]. A method for determining the apparent viscosity μa for a selected 
A point located on the straight Bingham fluid model is shown in Fig. 1. 
τ µ γ τ= +p  0
Fig. 1. A method for determining the apparent viscosity μa
γγ
τ0
τ
τA
A
arctgμp 
arctgμa 
168
Apparent viscosity μa, described by the equation:
  (3)
can also be interpreted as the angle of inclination of arcustangens line joining the origin 
of the coordinate system to point A. Fig. 1 shows that for the Bingham mathematical 
model when γ A → 0  that μa → ∞ and when γ A →∞  then μa → μp. In practice, in the case 
of low shear rate γ  is a maximum of μa = 1000 · μ [9], where μ refers to the viscosity of 
the magnetorheological or electrorheological fluid in the absence of an adequate physical 
field.
For example, the differences between the flow rates of the magnetorheological fluid in 
a magnetic field of a rectangular channel, calculated on the basis of the analytical equations 
and by using the ANSYS FLUENT software (using the Navier-Stokes equation and apparent 
viscosity) is shown in Fig. 2 [9].
µ
τ
γa
A
A
=

Fig. 2. The results of calculation of velocity flow in the rectangular channel with the height 
of 1 mm for τ0 = 10 kPa, acc. [9] 
As it is shown in Fig. 2 these differences, except for the extreme points, do not exceed 
10%, which is within the range of permissible errors in engineering calculations. However, 
for the channel with a more complex shape, the simulation errors are much greater. 
The described conduct of simulation allows to omit the problem connected with the lack 
of accurate computational models and has a practical application in the design of automotive 
shock absorbers, hydraulic brakes and clutches filled with these fluids.
169
3. The creation of solid models
The basic element of the three-dimensional graphics used in the process of designing 
and manufacturing machine parts (e.g. High-speed machining, or 3D printing) is the solid 
model. To create solid models, computer aided design (CAD) programs are used. The most 
popular ones are programs designed to create technical documentation in 2D and 3D, such 
as Autodesk Inventor, SolidWorks, ProEngineer. These programs allow the user to introduce 
changes and improvements, validate the design in terms of assembly and have their own 
catalogues of standardized structural elements [10, 11]. However, following the practice, in 
spite of using the right computer program commands, errors preventing its further use, may 
occur.
During the solid model design, a sketch is created. To create the 2D sketch, 2D graphics 
or a typical technical documentation is used. Then based on the sketch part, a 3D solid model 
is generated by using computer program, which is stored in a computer file used by CNC 
machine tool or a 3D printer.
One of the errors that can occur when creating a solid model of a complex machine part 
may take place during the surface generating process when the 2D sketch has sharp edges 
[1, 11], as illustrated in Fig. 3. Another error can occur when there is improper penetration of 
a solid model’s surface with another part’s surface [1, 10] (Fig. 4).
A way to eliminate these errors is to simplify the construction by eliminating complex 
line connections in the sketch [1, 10, 11]. The results should be monitored on a regular basis 
so other errors can be avoided in the design process.
Fig. 3. The incorrect generation of sharp edges after the conversion from a sketch into the solid model: 
a – an accurate sketch of the structure, b – the wrong model transformations, c – a simplified 
sketch, d – the element causing the problem as a separate sketch, e – a correctly generated 
solid model
c) d) e)
a) b)
170
Fig. 4. The incorrect penetration of the surface after replacing the sketch in a solid model by another 
solid model: a – a solid model with the visible errors penetration surface, b – sketch fragments 
in which the penetration occurs and which should be removed, c – an improved solid model
4. 3D Printing
3D printing allows for a quick manufacturing of some machinery parts, regardless of the 
complexity of their shape, so 3D printing is more and more widely used in various branches 
of the engineering industry, especially in aviation, but also for medical purposes [3]. Parts 
can be formed from various materials, such as metal powders (iron, aluminum, copper, 
titanium), plastics (polymers, nylon, polycarbonate resins) and ceramics. Due to the fact 
that 3D printing is an additive creating method, and its advantage is the optimal use of the 
material, which reduces the cost of part manufacturing. This technology is particularly useful 
for the construction of prototypes.
3D printing is an incremental way of forming a three-dimensional object. The shape 
of each layer is determined on the basis of the solid model of the manufactured parts. 
First, the solid model is created as a shearer model, stored in the computer memory as 
a set of coordinates of the vertices of triangles covering the surface of the part and the 
coordinate vectors perpendicular to these triangles. It has been assumed that the file has 
the extension “.stl”. 
The next step to create a layer model is the use of specialized 3D printer software. Based 
on this model, a set of points forming lines for layers of the construction is created, which 
enables the proper control of the 3D printer head.
In the case of manufacturing parts with complex shapes, during changing a solid model 
into a longwall model, errors can occur as a result of software malfunction. These are 
generally fragments of a solid model not covered by the so-called “degenerated” triangles 
a)
c)
b)
171
– the triangles whose vertices are collinear or triangles which overlap. Fig. 5a shows the 
hydrodynamic torque converter impeller made of nylon on a 3D printer, and Fig. 5b shows 
a magnified part of the rotor including blade connection with the casing, where the most 
“degenerated” triangles appear while creating a layered model.
Fig. 5. The rotor of PHM 28 hydrodynamic torque converter made on a 3D printer: a – general view, 
b – a view of the blades connection with casing
The removal of these errors requires the use of specialized software so the 3D printer 
manufacturers recommend programs that should be used, or they attach the appropriate 
software for their products. However, this software guarantees the correct operation of 3D 
printers only in the case of machine parts with simple shapes. In complicated cases, the 
software choice is not obvious due to a wide range of computer programs.
Problems relating to manufacturing by means of 3D printing are not limited to software 
malfunction, but are generally associated with the design features of machine parts such as 
material or dimensions and tolerances of the manufactured parts [12]. The material used in 
3D printers is selected in order to meet the requirements of the printing process [13]. 
Currently, the most widely used metal to manufacture machine parts, using 3D printing 
technology is titanium and its alloys. However, titanium is a “difficult” material in the 
machining process as well as in welding, which significantly makes the process of part 
manufacturing more difficult. Applying new technologies, where unusual materials are 
used, makes designers predict the possibilities of the emergence of unusual properties in the 
manufactured part and consider this fact in the process of quality control.
The small size of 3D printer workspaces, especially those in which the working materials 
are metal powders, limits the size of machine parts. Parts with dimensions exceeding the 
workspace dimensions can be created by combining smaller fragments. However, such 
a solution greatly complicates the design and needs further development of joining component 
part methods.
During the machine part manufacturing process, using 3D printing, the dimensional 
accuracy of parts may depend on the machine settings as well as the kind and size of 
geometric elements of this part. As shown in [14], errors occurring during the manufacturing 
of a part made of nylon, significantly exceeded the maximum amount of errors declared by 
the manufacturer of 3D printers in the technical documentation of the printer. In addition, 
a) b)
172
the distribution of these errors was random and unpredictable. In order to avoid the effect 
of errors on the correctness of the implementation of the manufactured machine part, 
dimensional inspection is needed thorough the manufacturing process and, if necessary, 
additional machining should be used.
5. Conclusions
On the basis of considerations referring to the selected problems in the application of 
computer-aided methods for the design and manufacturing of machine parts, the following 
conclusions can be made:
1. The combination of computer-aided methods of design with the performance of 
manufacturing technologies and the usage of unusual materials for the manufacturing of 
machine parts allow for quick manufacturing of a part at a significantly reduced cost and 
it is an important contribution to the development of mechanical engineering;
2. The use of computer-aided methods, however helpful it may be, is associated with the 
occurrence of difficulties and problems that do not exist in the traditional ways of designing 
and manufacturing machine parts. At the same time, these problems occur during the use 
of computer-aided methods for the design of specific machine part manufacturing;
3. Due to the diversity and unpredictability of the problems arising in the practical application 
of computer-aided methods for the machine part design and manufacturing, the use of 
computers does not relieve engineers from continuous monitoring of the design and the 
manufacturing process.
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Computer-aided machine design with regard to new technologies and materials

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Computer-aided machine design with regard to new technologies and materials

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