This paper analyses the effect of microstructure, mineralogical composition and possible salt contamination on parameters of moisture accumulation and transport. Analysis is done for three types of contemporary and two types of historical bricks

Bágeľ, Ľubomír

Ifka, Tomáš

Koronthályová, Oľga

Kullifayová, Marta

Portal Czasopism Naukowych (E-Journals)

* Ph.D. Oľga Koronthályová, RNDr Ľubomír Bágeľ, Eng. Marta Kullifayová, Ph.D. Eng. Tomáš Ifka, 
Institute of Construction and Architecture, Slovak Academy of Science, Bratislava, Slovakia.
OL’GA KORONTHÁLYOVA*, L’UBOMÍR BÁGEL*, MARTA KULLIFAYOVÁ*, 
TOMÁŠ IFKA*
HYGRIC PERFORMANCE OF CONTEMPORARY  
AND HISTORICAL CREAMIC BRICKS
HIGROSKOPOWA ANALIZA WSPÓŁCZESNYCH  
ORAZ HISTORYCZNYCH CEGIEŁ CERAMICZNYCH
A b s t r a c t
This paper analyses the effect of microstructure, mineralogical composition and possible salt 
contamination on parameters of moisture accumulation and transport. Analysis is done for three 
types of contemporary and two types of historical bricks.
Keywords: sorption isotherm, water vapour permeability, ceramic brick, microstructure, salt
S t r e s z c z e n i e 
W artykule przedstawiono wpływ mikrostruktury, składu mineralnego oraz możliwego wystę-
powania soli na akumulację i transport wilgoci. Analizy zostały przedstawione dla trzech ty-
pów elementów ceramicznych: materiału współcześnie stosowanego oraz dwóch stosowanych 
w przeszłości.
Słowa kluczowe: sorpcja, przepuszczalność pary wodnej, cegła ceramiczna, mikrostruktura, 
sól
TECHNICAL TRANSACTIONS
CIVIL ENGINEERING
3-B/2014
CZASOPISMO TECHNICZNE
BUDOWNICTWO
214
1. Introduction
Moisture transport and accumulation parameters are key factors in evaluation of  hygro- 
-thermal performance of building structures. Generally, moisture transport and accumulation 
parameters depend on actual pore structure of the building material. In cases when moisture 
accumulation only can be attributed to physiosorption of water vapour on the material pore 
system and the material does not contain very fine pores, inaccessible to nitrogen (e.g. common 
ceramic bricks), the hygroscopic moisture content (HMC) can be evaluated from nitrogen 
sorption [5, 6]. However, in case of historical bricks, which have been exposed for a long- 
-time to interaction with chemicals from the surrounding air or water, contamination with 
water soluble salts is very probable. Presence of hygroscopic salts significantly increases 
the HMC of ceramic bricks [6, 8]. Therefore measurement of  the HMC of brick samples can 
be used as an indication of the salt contamination [7]. In case of material contaminated with 
single salt relative reliable results, also on the quantity of the present salt, can be obtained 
from the HMC because of the linear relation between HMC and salt content. However, 
in case when a mix of unknown salts is present, as it is usual in reality, the relation between 
the HMC and the salt content is not clear [7, 8].
In this work, parameters of moisture accumulation and transport, namely water vapour 
sorption and water vapour permeability moisture dependence for three types of contemporary 
and two types of historical ceramic bricks were determined. Based on the obtained results, 
the effects of microstructure, mineralogical composition and possible salt contamination 
on the parameters of moisture accumulation and transport were analysed.
2. Materials and methods
The tested samples were three types of contemporary burnt clay bricks produced by 
Slovak manufacturers and two types of historical brick (nineteenth century) from western 
part of Slovakia.
The tested bricks were characterised by following basic parameters: bulk density, density, 
total porosity, open porosity and capillary moisture content. The bulk density was calculated 
from volume and mass of the dried out specimens (oven drying at 105°C). The density 
of  ceramic body was determined by gas (N2) pycnometer Pentapyc 5200e. The total porosity 
was calculated from density and bulk density. The open porosity was determined from water 
saturation test, the capillary moisture content from one dimensional time-controlled capillary 
water uptake experiment.
Mineral composition was determined by X-ray diffractograf Philips. The device is 
equipped with goniometer PW 1050 and Ni filter, and use Cu-Kα radiation in the range 
of  angles 4–62° 2Q. X-ray tube works at 35 kV and 20 mA. Velocity of record is 2°/min 2Q. 
The data were analysed using software BedeZDS Search/Match.
Nitrogen adsorption measurements were performed with the volumetric ASAP2400 
instrument, enabling isotherms in the 0.01–0.98 relative pressure range to be obtained. Prior 
to the measurement the samples were degassed overnight at 150°C and 2 Pa. The specific 
surface area of pores was determined by the BET method.
215
Water vapour sorption isotherms were determined by the standard gravimetric desiccator 
method, which consists of conditioning the samples in desiccators under constant relative 
humidity (RH) and temperature until the static equilibrium is achieved [2]. The samples were 
oven dried beforehand at 105°C.
The water vapour permeability of the brick specimens was measured by the standard cup 
method [3]. Mass of the samples was checked before and after each cup test. At the end of all 
cup measurements the samples were oven dried at temperature of 105°C in order to determine 
actual moisture contents of the samples. All water vapour permeability measurements were 
performed in an air-conditioned room at temperature of 23 ± 0.5°C and RH equal to 53 ± 1%. 
The required RH inside the cup was established by using silica-gel, water or saturated salt 
solutions.
3. Results and discussion
The basic material parameters and the BET specific surface area of the tested bricks are 
presented in Table 1. The crystal phases identified in brick specimens by X-ray diffractometry 
are summarized in Table 2. As follows from the data, the tested bricks had practically identical 
mineral composition, with an exception in the case of illite, which was identified in bricks 
D, BA1 and BA2 and of montmorillonite, identified in brick BA2. The presence of illite and 
montmorillonite indicates an imperfect heating regime in the furnace, common for historical 
bricks [1]. The X-ray diffractometry results did not confirm presence of hygroscopic salts. 
This result does not fully exclude the possibility of salt contamination but it guarantees that 
in case of contamination the amount of particular salt is below of 1 wt %.
Figure 1 and 2 show the measured nitrogen and water vapour adsorption isotherms for 
tested bricks. In case of all three contemporary bricks very good correspondence between 
nitrogen and water vapour adsorption isotherms was found. The nitrogen results showed 
significant dissimilarity of the tested bricks microstructure. Correspondingly the HMC 
of  brick D was practically negligible up to the RH of 94%. The determined HMC of brick 
S was noticeable but relatively low while the HMC of brick P was quite significant (Fig. 1). 
The good agreement between the water and nitrogen adsorption curves indicated that 
the contemporary bricks did not contain hygroscopic salts.
T a b l e  1
Basic material parameters and BET specific surface area of tested bricks
Brick
Bulk 
density 
[kg/m3]
Density
[kg/m3]
Total 
porosity 
[–]
Open 
porosity 
[–]
Capillary 
moisture content 
[m3/m3]
Specific surface 
area
[m2/g]
P 1370 2752 0.51 0.42 0.37 14.2
S 1460 2788 0.50 0.44 0.39 4.7
D 1780 2752 0.35 0.30 0.24 1.13
BA1 1710 2708 0.37 0.34 0.29 4.4
BA2 1700 2790 0.39 0.36 0.25 9.3
216
T a b l e  2
Crystal phases identified in tested bricks
Brick Identified phases
D Quartz, illite, muscovite, feldspars, enstatite (Fe, Mg), hematite
P Quartz, muscovite, feldspars, enstatite (Fe, Mg), hematite
S Quartz, muscovite, feldspar, esseneite (Ca, Fe), enstatite, hematite
BA1 Quartz, illite, muskovite, feldspars, calcite, hematite
BA2 Quartz, Illite, montmorillonite, muscovite, calcite, feldspars, hematite
Fig. 1. Water vapour and nitrogen adsorption isotherms of contemporary bricks D, P and S
Fig. 2. Water vapour and nitrogen adsorption isotherms of historical bricks BA1 and BA2 compared 
with nitrogen adsorption isotherms of contemporary bricks P and S
217
T a b l e  3
Identified concentration of salt anions and evaluated total salt concentration (historical bricks)
Brick Cl- [kg/kg] SO4
2- [kg/kg] NO3
- [kg/kg] Total salt amount [kg/kg]
BA1 0.0014 0.0014 0.0035 0.011–0.015
BA2 0.0038 0.0002 0.01 0.023–0.03
The nitrogen adsorption curve of historical brick BA1 was practically identical with 
the one of brick S, the nitrogen adsorption curve of historical brick BA2 was somewhere 
between the ones of brick S and P. However, the obtained HMC values of the historical 
bricks were significantly higher than the corresponding nitrogen isotherms. This discrepancy 
could result from their possible salt contamination. Therefore the BA1 and BA2 samples 
were put to qualitative, and after receiving positive results, also quantitative chemical 
analysis for determination of chloride, sulphate and nitrate anions. The analysis confirmed 
medium chloride, low sulphate and high nitrate salt contents in BA1sample. In case 
of  brick BA2 the analysis showed high chloride, practically negligible sulphate and very 
high nitrate salt content in the samples (Tab. 3). With the aim to estimate the total amount 
of  hygroscopic salts in the samples, the presence of ammonium salts was tested but result 
of the test was negative. Taking into account occurrence of the most probable salts (NaCl, 
KCl, CaCl2, CaSO4, Na2SO4, K2SO4, KNO3 and NaNO3 for BA1 and NaCl, KCl, CaCl2, 
KNO3 and NaNO3 for BA2) and the actual concentration of the salt anions (Tab. 3), total 
amount of the salts was evaluated. The minimum total salt amount was evaluated supposing 
only the salts with the lowest ratio of molar mass per one salt anion are present (CaCl2, 
CaSO4, NaNO3). The maximum total salt amount was correspondingly calculated from 
the salts with the highest value of molar mass per one salt anion (KCl, K2SO4, KNO3). 
The evaluated total salt amount was from 1.1 to 1.5 wt % in case of BA1 and from 2.3 
to 3.0 wt % in case of BA2 (Tab. 3). However it is necessary to point out that the values 
presented are only approximate. Nevertheless it is possible to note that the estimated 
considerably higher total salt amount of BA2 is in good agreement with the significantly 
higher HMC of this brick. From the estimated values of  the total salt amount and the results 
of X-ray  diffractometry also follows that mixture of  at least two different salts was present 
in bricks BA1 and BA2.
The measurements of the water vapour permeability of contemporary bricks were 
performed under different RH differences (0–53%, 11.3–53%, 33–53%, 53–75.4%, 
53–84.7%, 53–94% and 53–100%) with the aim to get water vapour resistance factor 
values for the broadest possible range of moisture contents, including the transition zone 
from the higher value of water vapour resistance factor, corresponding to the water vapour 
diffusion without the surface diffusion, to the lower value, following from cumulated effect 
of the water vapour diffusion and the surface diffusion. The water vapour permeability 
of  the historical bricks was measured under RH differences of 0–53%, 53–94% and 
53–100% (Fig. 3). Analysis of the measured water vapour resistance factor/moisture 
content relations of contemporary bricks has shown that they can be approximated by 
following hyperbolic function:
218
 µ µ= − ⋅
−




 −
−





−

0
1
2
1
2
1
2
a
u u
u
u u
u
u u
u
m m
m
m m
m
m m
m
exp exp
exp


 +
−




exp
u u
u
m m
m
1
2
 (1)
where:
um – moisture content [kg/kg],
m0, a, um1, um2 – parameters.
The mean moisture content at which the transition from higher to the lower value of water 
vapour resistance factor occurs corresponds to parameter um1. The width of the transition 
zone is expressed by the parameter um2 and corresponds to value of 2∙um2. The parameter m0 
expresses the mean value of water vapour resistance factor and value of 2a corresponds to 
the difference between maximum and minimum vapour resistance factor value. The applied 
parameters are in Tab. 4.
T a b l e  4
Applied parameters of hyperbolic function (1)
Brick m0 a um1 um2
P 9.2 3.7 0.0098 0.0037
S 8.2 3.0 0.0033 0.0003
D 13.7 2.9 0.0024 0.0005
During the dry cup measurements of saline samples an efflorescence occurrence is often 
reported on the dry sides of samples [4, 6]. The created salt crust then causes an increase 
Fig. 3. Water vapour resistance factor vs. moisture content for contemporary bricks P, S and D 
and historical bricks BA1 and BA2
219
of  the dry cup water vapour resistance factor value. However, the salt crust formation depends 
on many factors (e.g. type of salt or salts, salt concentration, way of drying) and therefore 
is hardly predictable. In case of the measured historical bricks a weak efflorescence was 
noticed in case of one sample but noticeable salt crust was not created. The presence of  salt 
has caused slightly higher values of vapour resistance factor of  BA2 samples (Fig. 3, 4). 
In case of contemporary bricks good correlation between the dry cup water vapour resistance 
factor values (measured at RH difference 0–53%) and open porosity of the bricks was 
obtained (Fig. 4). Compared to the contemporary salt free bricks the corresponding moisture 
contents of historical bricks are shifted towards the higher values (Fig. 3). This effect was 
significant especially for wet cup measurements of historical brick BA2 and corresponded 
to the high salt content as was determined. On the other hand it seems that this salt bounded 
moisture had minor effect on water vapour and surface diffusion. For wet cup measurements 
(RH difference 53–100%) relative good correlation between the water vapour resistance 
factor and open porosity was obtained for the whole set of tested bricks (Fig. 3, 4).
4. Conclusions
The microstructure, mineralogical composition, hygroscopic moisture content and water 
vapour permeability moisture dependence were determined for three types of contemporary 
and two types of historical ceramic bricks.
Fig. 4. Dry cup and wet cup water vapour resistance factor values vs. open porosity. Presented linear 
approximations involve all tested bricks
220
The tested bricks had very similar mineralogical composition. The microstructure 
of the tested contemporary bricks differed significantly. Correspondingly the potential 
hygroscopicity of the bricks varied from the practically negligible to the relative significant. 
The determined potential hygroscopicity of the historical bricks pore structure did not exceed 
the range determined for contemporary bricks.
Good compatibility between the nitrogen and water vapour adsorption was confirmed 
for salt free bricks. On the other hand it was showed that the discrepancy between nitrogen 
and water vapour results could indicate a contamination by hygroscopic salts. 
On the whole, the water vapour permeability of the tested bricks was directly proportional 
to the open porosity of the bricks. However in case of historical brick BA2 the present amount 
of salts caused slightly lower dry cup water vapour permeability.
This research was supported by the Slovak Grant Agency VEGA (Grant No. 2/0145/13).
R e f e r e n c e s
[1] Cultrone G., Rodriguez-Navarro C., Sebastian E., Cazalla O., De La Torre M.J., Carbonate and 
silicate phase reactions during ceramic firing, European Journal of Mineralogy, Vol. 13, Iss. 3, 
2001, 621-634.
[2] EN ISO 12571:2000 Hygrothermal performance of building materials and products – 
Determination of hygroscopic sorption properties.
[3] EN ISO 12572:2001 Hygrothermal performance of building materials and products – 
Determination of water vapour transmission properties. 
[4] Kiessl K., Bauphysikalische Einflüsse bei der Krustenbildung am Gestein alter Bauwerke, 
Bauphysik, Vol. 11, Iss.1, 1989, 44-49.
[5] Koronthályová O., Moisture storage capacity and microstructure of ceramic brick and autoclaved 
aerated concrete, Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 25, Iss. 2, 2011, 879-885.
[6] Koronthályová O.,  Bagel L., Kullifayova M., Ifka T., Effect of presence of salt on moisture 
accumulation and transport in burnt clay bricks, [In:] NSB 2014, 10th Nordic Symposium on 
Building Physics, 15–19 June, Lund University, Lund 2014, 443-450.
[7] Lubelli B., van Hees R.P.J., Brocken H.J.P., Experimental research on hygroscopic behaviour 
of  porous specimens contaminated with salts, Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 18, 2004, 
339-348.
[8] Nielsen C.B., Salts in Porous Building Materials, Technical Report 243/91, Technical University 
of  Denmark 1991.


Hygric performance of contemporary and historical creamic bricks

http://www.ejournals.eu/sj/index.php/Cz/article/download/1476/1474

Hygric performance of contemporary and historical creamic bricks

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