Although the Australian road freight transport industry has seen three mass limits reviews in the mid 1970s, the mid 1980s and in the late 1990s, (Hassall, 2005), there were two very significant truck configuration changes that happened in the mid 1980s and then again in the early 2000s.The first was the trials of a variant of the Canadian B-train (the B-Double) which was introduced into Australia in the mid 1980s. This ‘Australian’ B-Double could achieve payloads some 30% to 40% higher than the conventional ‘semi trailer’ articulated combination. By 2016 some 18,900 of these vehicles were operational in Australia.The second adoption of new vehicle configurations started in 1999 through the National Road Transport Commission (NRTC), who adopted, and further developed, another Canadian concept, that of “Performance Based Standards” (PBS). This effectively allowed for new, flexible truck designs, as long as the vehicles performed against a set of 17 specific technical engineering performance criteria. This Performance Based Standards approach, since 1998, also allowed even larger configurations to B-Doubles to be used by operators. The benefits already of these new configurations has delivered billions of dollars in kilometre savings to the road freight industry and to its customers, as well as very significant safety benefits to the community

Hassall, Kim

Logistics and Transport (E-Journal)

TRANSPORT The evolution of high productivity vehicles in Australia...13THE EVOLUTION OF HIGH PRODUCTIVITY VEHICLES IN AUSTRALIA AND THEIR BENEFITSKim Hassall University of Melbourne, AustraliaAlthough the Australian road freight transport industry has seen three mass limits reviews in the mid 1970s, the mid 1980s and in the late 1990s, (Hassall, 2005), there were two very significant truck configuration changes that happened in the mid 1980s and then again in the early 2000s. The first was the trials of a variant of the Canadian B-train (the B-Double) which was introduced into Australia in the mid 1980s. This ‘Australian’ B-Double could achieve payloads some 30% to 40% higher than the conventional ‘semi trailer’ articulated combination. By 2016 some 18,900 of these vehicles were operational in Australia. The second adoption of new vehicle configurations started in 1999 through the National Road Transport Commission (NRTC), who adopted, and further developed, another Canadian concept, that of “Performance Based Standards” (PBS). This effectively allowed for new, flexible truck designs, as long as the vehicles performed against a set of 17 specific technical engineering performance criteria. This Performance Based Standards approach, since 1998, also allowed even larger configurations to B-Doubles to be used by operators. The benefits of these new configurations have already delivered billions of dollars in kilometre savings to the road freight industry and to its customers, as well as very significant safety benefits to the community.Key wards: Productivity Vehicles, Performance Based Standards, B-Double, Australian Truck Design, Freight Transport, Freight Innovation, Urban Productivity, Freight Safety.1.  INTRoDUCINg THe B-DoUBle INTo AUSTRAlIAThe introduction of the Australian B-Double in the mid 1980s began very cautiously from a network perspective, however, as greater network access was granted the total uptake of these vehicles over the last 30 years has witnessed a growth rate, since 1986, of 30% compounding on a per annum basis. As Australia is a large continent, occupying 7.7 million square kilometres with only 24 million inhabitants, there are considerably large distances separating the major cities. The B-Double slowly emerged as the ‘new work-horse’ of the long distance road freight industry despite the fact that some 15% of its work is on zoned routes in major cities.Table 1 presents the growth of the Australian B-Double, which was slow for the first decade, but has accelerated very rapidly over the last 20 years as its popularity increased amongst both fleet and single operators.Figure 1 presents this growth in the B-Double truck population graphically, and figure 2 is a photograph of a specialist volumetric Australian 7 axle B-Double. The most common configuration for a B-Double is 9 axles: 3 for the prime mover unit and three axles for the shorter “A-trailer” and three axles for the longer “B-Trailer”.Table 1: Australian B-Double population by selected yearSource: Australian Bureau of Statistics: Survey of Motor Vehicle Use, detailed data cubes selected yearsDOI: 10.26411/83-1734-2015-2-38/2-18The evolution of high productivity vehicles in Australia... Logistics and Transport No 2(38)/201814Figure 3 reflects three B-Double configurations and compares them to the very common, 6 axle single articulated truck and trailer combination, known in Australia as a ‘semi-trailer’.As at 2016, a 6 axle semi-trailer, on average, travelled 71,000 kilometres per annum, whereas a B-Double was averaging some 171,000 kilometres per annum (NTC, 2015).  This reflected large Fig. 1. B-Double growth in Australia 1986 to 2016 Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics: Survey of Motor Vehicle Use, detailed data cubes selected yearsFig. 2.  An Australian 7 axle Volumetric B-DoubleSource: IlI Photo archive, Australian High Productivity Vehicles6 Axle Single Articulated Combination (the work horse of the national fleet)length 19m, Width 2.5m Height max 4.3mWeight 42.5 tonnes gVM (45.5 Tonnes with mass management accreditation)Usual Australian B-Double ConfigurationsB-Double: 7 axle configurationlength 25m, Width 2.5m Height max 4.3mWeight 55.5 tonnes gVM (57 Tonnes with mass management accreditation)B-Double: 8 axle configurationlength 25m, Width 2.5m Height max 4.3mWeight 59 tonnes gVM (62.5 Tonnes with mass management accreditation)B-Double: 9 axle configurationlength 25m, Width 2.5m Height max 4.3mWeight 62.5 tonnes gVM (68 Tonnes with mass management accreditation)Fig. 3. Comparing Standard B-Doubles against the common 6 axle articulated truck.Source: Hassall, 2005, City logistics IV, Conference Proceedings, langkawi, 2005.operator productivity benefits as two B-Doubles equalled the capacity of three semi-trailers and were performing a considerable amount of extra work.TRANSPORT The evolution of high productivity vehicles in Australia...152.  THe DeVeloPMeNT oF THe HIgH PRoDUCTIVITy VeHICleS THRoUgH PeRFoRMANCe BASeD STANDARDSIn 1999 Australia’s National Road Transport Commission (NRTC) (now renamed the National Transport Commission, the NTC) extended the Canadian and New Zealand frameworks for the development of Performance Based Standards for flexible truck design. These frameworks in brief, suggested that, at that time, as long as a vehicle performed against some 18 specific technical performance criteria (now 17) then prescriptive regulations need not apply to the weights and dimensions of a specific vehicle. In effect the operator could design their own truck. Whilst the oeCD, which also formed an international working party for this project, and reported in 2011, several major new truck designs were being implemented in Australia.Some two dozen, assembled high productivity vehicle case studies were developed through simulations and reviewed by the National Road Transport Commission, (NRTC, 1999b). These case studies comprised both rigid truck and trailer combinations and multi-articulated vehicles. These vehicles could be up to, and beyond 50 meters in length and up to 170 tonnes gross Vehicle Mass, although these large combinations did not get ‘general’ road access. Most PBS vehicles, however, are less than 30 metres in length.The National Road Transport Commission also established the initial framework of approvals, testing and certification for those vehicles seeking operational approval under the Performance Based Standards scheme. This PBS approvals process is different to the State approved permit schemes by the fact that the PBS process is a national process and not restricted to a particular region or jurisdiction, although the State jurisdictions have a considerable say on an operator’s desired road network which requires careful approval. The approvals will usually be very specific with regards the operator’s designated road network.The initial 18 Performance Based Standards, now 17, have been modified on various occasions since their initial draft in the early 2000s. These current standards are those agreed by the federal and State Road Agencies and have now been implemented by the National Heavy Vehicle Regulator (NHVR). These standards are presented in Table 2.Some common PBS vehicle types are shown in Figure 4. And their descriptions are listed in Table 3.Table 2: Performance Based Vehicles engineering StandardsSource:  NHVR https://www.nhvr.gov.au/road-access/performance-based-standards/pbs-vehicle-standardsThe evolution of high productivity vehicles in Australia... Logistics and Transport No 2(38)/201816A more detailed description of the 14 common PBS vehicles classes, that currently operate in Australia, can be found in Appendix 2. A listing of the tare weights and gross combination weights for the tractor and trailer combinations are presented in Table 4, along with the average kilometres that these vehicle perform, on a per annum basis, as at 2017. generally, PBS vehicle outperform their conventional road freight vehicle counterparts with regards to kilometres travelled and kilometres saved.Fig. 4: Common Australia High Productivity VehiclesSource: IlI truck photo archive – AustraliaIt should be noticed that some longer configurations can operate at greater mass than their shorter counterpart PBS vehicles if they participate in a Higher Mass limits scheme. ThisHigher Mass limits (HMl) scheme allows conventional and PBS vehicles to increase their gross Combination Mass by around 10% to 23%, especially when more axles are added to the vehicle configuration. There are certifications schemes in place for PBS and non PBS vehicles to be allowed to participate in the HMl scheme.TRANSPORT The evolution of high productivity vehicles in Australia...17Table 3: Descriptions of Figure 4 PBS Vehicle TypesSource: IlI photo archives Australian PBS VehiclesTable 4. Weights PBS Vehicles can operate to in Australia (tonnes)Source: IlI Quantifying the Benefits of the High Productivity Vehicles – Update (2017) for NTCThe evolution of high productivity vehicles in Australia... Logistics and Transport No 2(38)/2018183.  PBS TRUCk gRoWTH RATeSIn 2013 the operational rollout of the PBS scheme was transferred to the new National Heavy Vehicle regulator (www.nhvr.gov.au). Since that time nearly 6000 vehicles have been certified for operations, reflecting a growth rate of 49% per annum since that date.However, some older vehicles, that were operating before the formal PBS scheme was adopted in 2006, were allowed to operate under various State permit systems, and these ‘permit’ vehicles numbered over 600. Many are still operating, especially the B-Triple configuration, which numbered 628 at the last vehicle census. These B-Triples were generally operating in rural and regional areas and are statistically the safest PBS vehicle operating.What do PBS Vehicles carry?In early 2017 the largest commodity carried by PBS vehicles was quarry, sand, gravel, and construction rubble. This has meant that the PBS construction ‘tippers’ using 4,5 or 6 axle trailers represent the largest proportion of the PBS population. Many of these rigid ‘truck and dog’ construction trucks are in fact operating in urban areas.However, as more of Australia’s interstate highways, especially between major Capital cities, open to larger PBS vehicles, then longer PBS trucks like A-Doubles and B-Triples will become far more active, and the ‘general freight’ and ‘container’ commodity classes will increase markedly.4.  CAlCUlATINg THe PRoDUCTIVITy oF THe PBS FleeTTo calculate productivity of PBS vehicles a ‘physical productivity measure’ was chosen, and that was the PBS ‘kilometres saved’ metric. Initially in 2012 network and PBS simulations were conducted for the different vehicle classes for different commodities, (Hassall, 2012), to estimate the kilometre savings. However, from direct national operator surveys (Hassall et al 2014, and 2017) these 2012 simulations of ‘kilometres saved’ was shown to be underestimated. The operators themselves knew exceptionally well: how many trips they saved, their percentage of kilometres saved on a weekly or monthly basis and as such these ‘kilometres saved’ proportion could be converted into a ‘kilometre reduction factor’ which for the various PBS configurations is presented in Table 6.As can be seen in Table 6 the PBS kilometres saved can range from 11.6% for a 3 axle PBS heavy rigid truck and dog tipper trailer combination to a 42.1% reduction for the larger Quad trailer (Double B-Double) configurations. The value of this saving, over a 20 year period, equates to several billion dollars in savings for operators and this is most often shared with their customers. (Hassall et al, 2017 for NTC) Also, as there are fewer gross Tonne kilometres (gTkms) performed on the roads by using these PBS vehicles, then there is also a saving in road pavement maintenance. This road pavement impact is not explored in this paper.Possibly the most important social benefit of PBS vehicles is that they have achieved an excellent safety record. There are two metrics that safety is generally measured against: collisions per 100 million kilometres travelled, and accidents per 10,000 vehicles. Against the first metric, as over 1.1 billion kilometres was travelled by the surveyed PBS fleet then this gave a very credible accident metric. Table 5: growth in the Use of PBS vehiclesSource: IlI 2017, NHVR Annual Report 2016-17Figure 5: The PBS Task by Commodity groupsSource: IlI Quantifying the Benefits of the High Productivity Vehicles – Update (2017) for NTCTRANSPORT The evolution of high productivity vehicles in Australia...19But as there were far fewer than 10,000 PBS vehicles in the PBS surveys that were undertaken in 2014 and 2017, the accident rates per 10,000 vehicles was less meaningful but it too produced good results at the total PBS vehicle population level.The types of accidents measured were ‘high impact truck collisions’ by vehicle type. This data was made available through Australia’s largest truck insurer who also owns the National Truck Accident Research Centre (NTARC). NTARC produced the data that enabled the calculation for these metrics and the safety benchmarks for the conventional truck fleet, as well as a significant proportion of accident data on the PBS fleet accidents. The remainder of the PBS accidents’ data were obtained through operator survey methods. In the cases for both the rigid and articulated PBS trucks, there were significantly fewer accidents on a per 100 million kilometre basis, and at the total PBS population level there were solid savings in major collisions reflected in the 10,000 vehicle population metric. 5.  CoNClUSIoNS:In the mid 1980s, the B-Double made its appearance on the Australian freight scene. These vehicles have proven to be highly successful and after 30 years there are some 19,000 B-Doubles operating. Their safety record is also 65% better than the standard single articulated ‘semi-trailer’ and their capacity productivity is some 33% better than the ‘semi-trailer’ vehicle.The development of the Performance Based Standards (PBS) Scheme in 1998 and refined over the next decade has seen some 14 new classes of PBS vehicle configurations appear, including buses. These vehicle types have delivered very Table 6: Productivity of each of the PBS vehicle configurationsSource: IlI, Quantifying the Benefits of Performance Based Standard Vehicles – Update for NTC 2017Table 7: Comparing PBS safety benefits against the conventional Australian truck fleet. Source: IlI, Quantifying the Benefits of Performance Based Standard Vehicles – Update for NTC 2017, Hassall et al for Austroads 2014.The evolution of high productivity vehicles in Australia... Logistics and Transport No 2(38)/201820high levels of productivity benefits, 47% less high impact collisions than the conventional trucking fleet and even delivered road pavement benefits through performing less gross tonne kilometres when doing an equivalent road freight task. Both the introduction of the Australian B-Double and Performance Based Standards (PBS) scheme have proven extraordinarily successful and are very worthy of study by other road agencies in many countries.ABBReVIATIoNS6/7AA 6 or 7 Axle Semi-Trailer CombinationAD A-DoubleAT A-TripleBD B-DoubleBT B-TripleC/km Cents per kilometreeBD enhanced B-DoublegCM gross Combination MassgVM gross Vehicle Mass HMl Higher Mass limitHPV High Productivity VehicleHR Heavy RigidHR3ADT Rigid Truck plus 3 Axle Dog TrailerHR4ADT Rigid Truck plus 4 Axle Dog TrailerHR5ADT Rigid Truck plus 5 Axle Dog TrailerHR6ADT Rigid Truck plus 6 Axle Dog TrailerIlI Industrial logistics InstituteNHVR National Heavy Vehicle Regulator NTARC National Truck Accident Research CentreNTC National Transport Commissionp.a. Per AnnumPBS Performance Based StandardsQT Quad Trailer CombinationSBD Super B-DoubleSMVU Survey of Motor Vehicle UseAPPeNDIX IIn Australia there are some regulated ‘road train’ combinations that service large rural and remote regions of Australia. These vehicles are referred to as Double Road Trains (Type I road trains) and Triple Road Trains (Type II road trains). These vehicles are not afforded the same access as either B-Doubles or the High Productivity Vehicles approved through the Performance Based Standards process, however, they are being used especially in the remote areas of Queensland, the Northern Territory and Western Australia.Source: Hassall (2005)Fig. A1. long Distance Double Road Train and Triple Road Train Combinations 11 Axle Double Road Trainlength 36.5m, Width 2.5m Height max 4.3mWeight 79 tonnes gVM (85.7 Tonnes with mass management accreditation*)16 Axle Double Road Trainlength 53.5m, Width 2.5m Height max 4.3mWeight 115.5 tonnes gVM (125.2 Tonnes with mass management accreditation*)TRANSPORT The evolution of high productivity vehicles in Australia...21APPeNDIX II: PeRFoRMANCe BASeD STANDARDS VeHICle DeSCRIPTIoNSTable B1: Detailed Vehicle Abbreviations and DescriptionsSource: Quantifying the Benefits of Performance Based Standards, IlI for NTC 2017The evolution of high productivity vehicles in Australia... Logistics and Transport No 2(38)/201822ReFeReNCeS AND BIBlIogRAPHy[1]  Hassall k. Driscoll o, Cowell k, “Performance Based Standards Marketplace Outlook Project: Quantifying the Benefits of Performance Based Standards Vehicles – Update” for National Transport Commission” Melbourne, 2017.[2]  Hassall k & Thompson R g: What are the Safety Benefits of High Productivity Vehicles when compared to the conventional vehicle fleet? 9th City logistics Conference Tenerife, 2015, elsevier Conference Proceedings, 2016 [3]  NTC, ‘2016 Heavy Vehicle Charges: Industry Briefing Information Paper’ NTC Melbourne, 2015[4]  Hassall k Driscoll o, Welsh k “Quantifying the Benefits of High Productivity Freight Variables in Australia”, AustRoads Project FS 1805, Austroads, Canberra, 2014[5]  Hassall k “The Role of Simulating Commodity Based Freight Networks in Estimating the National Benefits of Introducing PBS Vehicles into Australia” HVTT12 Conference Proceedings, Stockholm, 2012 [6]  Hassall, k, Thompson R, “Estimating the Benefits of Performance Based Standard Vehicles” Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board. ISSN 0361-1981, pp 94-101, transportation Research Board of the National Academies, 2011[7]  oeCD (2011), Moving Freight with Better Trucks: Improving Safety, Productivity and Sustainability, oeCD Publishing. http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789282102961-en[8]  Hassall, k, “Estimating the Benefits of Performance Based Standard Vehicles for the Australian Road Transport Industry” Regulatory Impact Statement and Benefit Cost Analysis, National Transport Commission, Melbourne, 2010.[9]  Hassall, k, “The Potential Impact of Performance Based Standards as the 3rd Pillar Initiative for Road Freight Transport”, International engineering Sustainability Conference, Perth Australia, keynoteWA organizers, 2007 [10]  Hassall, k. “Introducing High Productivity Vehicles in Australia: Two case studies with two different Regulatory Mechanisms”. Proceedings ‘Recent Advances in City logistics: 4th City logistics Conference, langkawi’. 2005. [11]  Hassall k. P., Achievable Rigid Truck Productivity gains through Performance Based Standards, International Seminar on Performance Based Standards, NRTC Melbourne, 2003[12]  NRTC “Performance-Based Standards for Heavy Vehicles”, Bulletin 10, NTC Melbourne.1999a[13]  NRTC “Performance-Based Standards for Heavy Vehicles: Assembly of Case Studies”, Report, National Transport Commission Melbourne, 1999b.Prof. Kim HassallDepartment of Infrastructure Engineering, University of Melbourne, AustraliaDate submitted: 2018-.05-01Date accepted for publishing: 2018-05-22

THE EVOLUTION OF HIGH PRODUCTIVITY VEHICLES IN AUSTRALIA AND THEIR BENEFITS

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THE EVOLUTION OF HIGH PRODUCTIVITY VEHICLES IN AUSTRALIA AND THEIR BENEFITS

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