The integration of educational technologies in adult learning environments is viewed from three distinct perspectives. The three perspectives are the structuralist, the means-end, and finally, a view of technology as an extension of oneself based in the situatedness of an experiential-type learning environment.
The various constructs of adult learning are reviewed and a framework for future adult learning communities is proposed that identifies the learner and educator provided components needed for an effective adult learning experience

Pickett, Michael C.

English

Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University

Toward a Future Adult Learning Community: If Sacra tes Had a PC. .. Toward a Future Adult Learning Community: If Socrates had a PC ... By Michael C. Pickett Submitted to Dr. Earl Wheeler, March 30, 1999 Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University's Seventh Annual Symposium on Teaching Effectiveness [Accepted September 8, 1999] Seven um On Teaching Effectiveness Wednesday, November 3, 1999 64 Toward a Future Adult Learning Community: If Socrates Ha.d a PC ... ABSTRACT The integration of educational technologies in adult learning environments is viewed from three distinct perspectives. The three perspectives are the structuralist, the means-end, and finally, a view of technology as an extension of oneself based in the situatedness of an experiential-type learning environment. various constructs of adult learning are reviewed and a framework for future adult learning communities is proposed that identi the learner and educator provided components needed for an effective adult learning experience. A Socratic notion of the integration of technology is explored to parallel the notion of the invisible integration of technology into adult learning communities. Seven um On Teaching Symposium Wednesday, November 3, 1999 65 Toward a Future Adult Learning Community: There is only one good, knowledge, And one evil, ignorance. Socrates Introduction The infusion of technology in business as a necessity in global competitiveness goes without saying and needs no further explanation. However, the utilization of educational technology, when introduced in adult learning environments may be viewed from three distinct perspectives (Pickett, 1997). The first notion being the "structuralist" school of thought, utilizing Bolman and Deal's (1997) structural frame espoused with Frederick Taylor's "scientific management". This extension of job-related skills is developed to enhance employee job competence and proficiency to achieve overall corporate goal attainment. With this approach, any or all personal and motivational benefits gained from the technology integration become a secondary, or serendipitous achievement (Pickett, 1997) . A second perspective utilizes the technology component as a means-end, process or integration of Seventh Annual Symposium On Teaching Symposium Wednesday, November 3, 1999 66 If Socrates Had a PC ... skills. This notion typically demonstrated in the K-12 classrooms in ways such that either the lesson is "enhanced" through the use of multi-media, Internet or any means of technology interaction between the individual(s) and the technology media. This approach, while introducing the technology component, views technology as a separate entity in the setting (Pickett, 1997) . The third view integrates current technology to achieve an extension of the self, in other words, learning theories (e.g., distributed learning, constructivism and collaboration) and educational technology principles (e.g., newsgroups, chat rooms, etc.) are integrated with introspection, mentoring and li experience to cultivate a learning environment that provides the experiential-type of learning environments more closely aligned with current adult learning theory research (Pickett, 1997). To clarify the above view, a definition of some general terms in adult learning theory is in order. Definition of Terms Cooperative Learning Toward a Future Adult Learning Community: "Cooperative learning tends to be more structured in its approach to small-group instruction, to be more detailed in advice to practitioners, and to advocate more direct training of students to function in groups than does collaborative learning" (Matthews & Cooper, On-line). Collaborative Learning "Collaborative learning practitioners are inclined to assume students are responsible participants who already use social skills in undertaking and completing tasks. Therefore students receive less instruction in group skills and roles and perform less structured reflection on group interaction than in cooperative-learning classrooms" (Matthews & Cooper, On-line). Constructivist Learning Theory Constructivist theory posits that learning is constructed by a student through two processes: the resolution of conflict and reflection about theory. In essence, the students are " ... self-structured ... " and, " ... self-motivated ... " (Strornmen & Lincoln, On-line) . Seventh Annual Symposium On Teaching Symposium Wednesday, November 3, 1999 67 If Socrates Had a PC ... Socio-Cultural Theory -Zone of Proximal Development Socio-cultural theory focuses on the causal relationship between social interaction and the individual's cognitive development. The zone of proximal development (ZPD) is the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under the guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers (Vygotsky, 197 8) • Situated Learning/Knowledge According to Brown, Collins and Duguid (On-line) there is an assumption of a separation of knowledge between "knowing" and "doing" . Knowledge is assumed to be self-sufficient and independent of the situation in which they are learned. Situated learning posits that the situation which knowledge is learned is an integral part of what is learned i.e., "Learning and cognition, it is now possible to argue, are fundamentally situated" (Brown, Collins & Duguid, On-line). Toward a Future Adult Learning Community: Constructs of Adult Learning Johnson and Johnson's (1993) meta-analysis of studies using college students as subjects found that of the 120 studies that have been completed since 1924, 70% have been completed since 1970. Some of the outcomes other than greater individual achievement were that cooperative learning builds positive relationships, increases self-esteem and leads to greater intrinsic motivation to learners. It is beyond the scope of this paper to include all studies, however, Johnson and Johnson's meta-analysis does bring focus to the derived benefits of cooperative learning in general. Adult Learning Malcolm Knowles pioneered adult learning and identified several characteristics of the adult learner to include autonomy, self-direction, accumulation of life experiences and knowledge, goal-orientated, relevancy-oriented, practical and a need to be shown respect (Lieb, On-line). Experiential Learning Dewey (1916), as an advocate of educational Seventh Annual Symposium On Teaching Symposium Wednesday, November 3, 1999 68 If Socrates Had a PC ... reform, not only viewed education as a condition of growth, but also saw experience as a biological and social transaction. Kurt Lewin's influence in the field of social psychology led to the development of 12 principles of experiential learning (Sherman, 1996) : 1. Effective experiential learning will affect the learner's cognitive structures (action theories), attitudes and values, perceptions and behavioral patterns. 2. People will believe more in knowledge they have discovered themselves than in knowledge presented by others. 3. Learning is more effective when it is an active rather than a passive process. 4. Acceptance of new action theories, attitudes, and behavioral patterns cannot be brought about by a Toward a Future Adult Learning Community: piecemeal approach - one's whole cognitive-affective-behavioral system has to change. 5. It takes more than information to change action theories, attitudes, and behavioral patterns. 6. It takes more than firsthand experience to generate valid knowledge. Besides experience, there needs to be a theore cal system that the experience tests out, and reflection on the meaning of experience. 7. Behavior changes will be temporary unless the action theories and attitudes underlying them are changed. 8. Changes in perceptions of oneself and one's social environment are necessary before changes in action theories, attitudes, and Seventh Annual Symposium On Teaching Symposium Wednesday, November 3, 1999 69 If Socrates Had a PC ... behavior will take place. 9. The more supportive, accepting, and caring the social environment, the freer a person is to experiment with new behaviors, attitudes, and action theories. 10.In order for changes in behavior patterns, attitudes and action theories to be permanent, both the person and the social environment have to change. 11.It is easier to change a person's action theories, attitudes, and behavioral patterns in a group context than in an individual context. 12.A person accepts a new system of action theories, attitudes, and behavioral patterns when he or she accepts Toward a Future Adult Learning Community: membership in a new group. Socio-Cultural Development Vygotsky's (1978) socio-cultural development theory, to include the zone of proximal development (ZPD), provides the tools through which the social mind develops in which learners mediate through an activity. Vygotsky sees the mind as " ... unlimited in the sense that its development is inseparable from the tools of mediation, which themselves are of ten corporeal things ... " (Smagorinsky, On-line) . Similarities and Differences in Cooperative and Collaborative Learning According to Matthews and Cooper (On-line), the areas in which cooperation and collaboration differ are, 1) the style, function, and the degree of involvement of the teacher, 2) the issue of authority and power relationships between the teacher and the students, 3) the extent to which the students need to be trained to work together in groups, 4) how knowledge is assimilated and constructed, and 5) a variety of implementation concerns. Seven On Teaching Symposium Wednesday, November 3, 1999 70 If Socrates Had a PC ... Matthews and Cooper (On-line) also posit similarities between the two schools of thought such as 1) active learning is more effective than passive learning, 2) teacher's roles as facilitators and coaches, 3) balancing of lecture and small group activities, 4) development of higher order thinking skills, 5) intellectual development is enhanced as students share in the responsibilities of learning, 6) increased abilities to reflect on assumptions and thought processes, 7) the development of social and team skills, 8) increased retention and student success, and 9) the appreciation of diversity. An Educator's Challenge for the Future Paul Hersey, when asked at a recent Academy of Management meeting, "How did Situational Leadership come to be?" Hersey's response was, "By standing on the shoulders of giants, you are able to see farther" (P. Hersey, personal communication, August 9 & 10, 1998). Indeed, a very powerful metaphor which respectfully acknowledges the great works of previous scholars. Of the many giants that contributed to the evolution of Situational Toward a Future Adult Learning Community: Leadership, the most significant giant that Dr. Hersey spoke about was Abraham Maslow. The intuitive appeal of Maslow's hierarchy of needs has indeed enriched many lives though many scholars were unable to validate its proposed results through their studies. However, the central focus of the theory and model were that of well-defined needs. The adult learner, as mentioned previously, has very specific needs that differ Seventh Annual Symposium On Teaching Symposium Wednesday, November 3, 1999 71 If Socrates Had a PC ... from the non-adult learner. Therefore, educators must continually challenge themselves to acknowledge the core foundations of the very diverse adult learning community that is now a very strong and growing component of higher education. A Proposed Framework for Adult Learning The following proposed framework builds on previous research and attempts to operationalize adult learning androgogy. Toward a Future Adult Learning Comm.unity: If Socrates Had a PC ... Figure 1. Framework for Future Adult Learning Community. Educator Provided Environment Learner Provided Learner Provided • Autonomy • Self-Direction • Goal-Orientation • Perception, Attitudes, Behaviors • Skills • Life Experiences • Need for Respect Educator Provided • Collaborative/Constructivist Environment • Relevance • Experiential Learning • Problem-Orientation • Zones of Proximal Development With an understanding that the learner is the center of the learning process, educators begin by providing a learning environment that challenges On Teaching Symposium Wednesday, November 3, 1999 72 and extends the adult learner's ~self". The educator then builds and extends the learner provided components through experientially-oriented learning environments, based on appropriate and Toward a Future Adult Learning Community: relevant situational environmental issues (Figure 1.) that will prove to enhance and build mutual respect between all participants. Lastly, the situated context of the learning environment places a maximum emphasis on, 1) group activities and development of social and team skills 2) higher order tical thinking skills 3) intellectual development 4) shared responsibilities in s f-regulated learning 5) abilities to reflect on assumptions and thought processes. It is in this way the overall educational environment contributes to future adult learning communities. At this point, one may ask, ~where does the technology component t in?" Alas, we have come full circle to understanding the value of the third view of technology integration -seamless and invisible; as an extension of the self. This particular notion is not common and may not be popular in some circles Seventh Annual Symposium On Teaching Symposium Wednesday, November 3, 1999 73 If Socrates Had a PC ... as most schools of thought view technology as a separate component, hence perceiving the technology integration from either views one or two. However, this writer views technology as being integrated into the ~situatedness" of the contextual adult learning experience. If Socrates had a PC ... Socrates' ability to draw forth knowledge through a series of questions and implications of the student's answers led to the methods that we know today as the Socratic Dialog. This method is extremely ef ive in developing provocative thought, critical thinking skills and reinforces several of the previously mentioned principles of experiential learning. Two such examples are that people will believe more in knowledge they have discovered themselves than in knowledge presented by others and learning is more effective when it is an active rather than a passive process. If Socrates had a PC, there is no doubt that he would have mastered the nuances of the device without reluctance, as he once stated, ~Let him that would move the world first Toward a Future Adult Learning Community: move himself", or, "Wisdom begins in wonder". If Socrates had a PC, the dialogic art form that he so keenly developed would not have been hampered by the technological maladies we experience today. Why? -because Socrates' true wisdom was evident through the debates of virtue and the disclosure of ignorance, hypocrisy and conceit. To eclipse the quest for knowledge and wisdom for the sake of technological integration would most certainly qualify to Socrates as, " ... one evil..." or, that of ignorance. It is evident that the Socratic view of knowledge and wisdom were situated in the activities and experiences of the moment, and as such, the collective nature of the Socratic Dialog will forever be espoused in the principles of future adult learning communities. By seeking a greater understanding of adult learning needs, Socrates' one good, the precious gift of knowledge, passed on to us so graciously by the great philosophers, will prevail from within our future learning communities -- even if Socrates had a PC. Seventh Annual Symposium On Teaching Symposium Wednesday, November 3, 1999 If Socrates Had a PC ... 74 Toward a Future Adult Learning Community: If Socrates Had a PC ... References Bolman, L.G., & Deal, T.E. (1997). Reframing organizations (2nd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Brown, J.S., Collins, A. & Duguid, P. Situated cognition and the culture of learning. [On-line]. Available. http://www.ilt.columbia.edu/ilt/papers/JohnBrown.html Dewey, J., (1916). The Macmillan Company. Johnson, D. & Johnson, R. (1993) . What we know about cooperative learning at a college level. Cooperative Learning, Vol. 13, No. 3. Lieb, S. Principles of adult learning. [On-line). Available. http://www.hcc.hawaii.edu/education/hcc/ facdev/AdultLearning.html Matthews, R.S., Cooper, J.L. Building bridges between cooperative and collaborative learning. [On-line). Available. http://www2.emc.maricopa.edu/innovation/ CCL/building.html Pickett, M.C. (1997). (unpublished). Doctoral Consultancy Proposal for ED785, Pepperdine University. Seventh Annual Symposium On Teaching Symposium Wednesday, November 3, 1999 15 Toward a Future Adult Learning Community: If Socrates Had a PC.,, References (cont.) Sherman, L.W. (1996). Cooperative learning in post secondary education: implications from social psychology for active learning experiences. Presentation at Ameri Educational Research Association, Chicago, Il. [On-line]. Available. http://miavxl.muohio.edu/~lwsherman/ aera906.html Smagorinsky, P. The social construction of data: methodological problems of investigating learning in the zone of proximal development. [On-line]. Available. http://www.glas.apc.org/~vega/vygodsky/smagor.html Strommen, E.F. & Lincoln, B. Constructivism, technology, and the future of classroom learning. [On-line]. Available. http://www.ilt.columbia.edu/ilt/ papers/construct.html Vygotsky, L.S., (1978) Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. seven On Teaching Symposium Wednesday, November 3, 1999 76 

Toward a Future Adult Learning Community: If Socrates Had a PC

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