Through the lens of the Salieri effect (Clark & Corcoran, 1986) and accumulative disadvantage, the purpose of the study is to describe and explain the under-representation of women in the superintendency despite their over-representation in the teaching profession. The following will be accomplished: (a) a description of the stories of women’s lives and experiences that pertains to or describe a career in education administration; (b) an analysis of the stories these women tell through the lens of the Salieri effect and accumulative disadvantage; © other realities that may be revealed; (d) an assessment of the usefulness of the Salieri effect and accumulative disadvantage for explaining the phenomenon under review

Evans, Cheryl

English

Fort Hays State University

Academic Leadership: The Online JournalVolume 4Issue 2 Spring 2006 Article 104-1-2006Women in the Superintendency: A Study ofAccumulative DisadvantageCheryl EvansFollow this and additional works at: https://scholars.fhsu.edu/aljPart of the Educational Leadership Commons, Higher Education Commons, and the TeacherEducation and Professional Development CommonsThis Article is brought to you for free and open access by FHSU Scholars Repository. It has been accepted for inclusion in Academic Leadership: TheOnline Journal by an authorized editor of FHSU Scholars Repository.Recommended CitationEvans, Cheryl (2006) "Women in the Superintendency: A Study of Accumulative Disadvantage," Academic Leadership: The OnlineJournal: Vol. 4 : Iss. 2 , Article 10.Available at: https://scholars.fhsu.edu/alj/vol4/iss2/10academicleadership.org http://www.academicleadership.org/77/women_in_the_superintendency_a_study_of_accumulative_disadvantage/Academic Leadership JournalIntroductionElla Flagg Young became the first woman superintendent of the Chicago schools in 1909 (Blount,1998). Young’s enthusiasm for women’s school leadership reflected the palpable momentum amongwomen activists at the time. After all, in a mere 50 years women had progressed from having fewmeans of employment outside the home to dominating their new profession of teaching, accounting foraround 70 percent of all teachers by 1900 (Blount, 1998).In the early decades of the twentieth century, thousands of women succeeded in attaining schoolleadership positions (Blount, 1999). During this time school districts added formal bureaucraticstructures and administrative layers, a trend that resulted in a proliferation of administrative positions.Women moved into positions, becoming lead teachers, teaching principals, supervisors, mid-leveladministrators, sometimes ultimately superintendents (Blount, 1998).Women now make up around half the ranks from which the vast majority of superintendents are taken:central-office administrators and principals (Keller, 1999). In district central offices, 57 percent of theprofessionals are women as are 41 percent of principals (Keller, 1999).Through the lens of the Salieri effect (Clark & Corcoran, 1986) and accumulative disadvantage, thepurpose of the study is to describe and explain the under-representation of women in thesuperintendency despite their over-representation in the teaching profession. The following will beaccomplished: (a) a description of the stories of women’s lives and experiences that pertains to ordescribe a career in education administration; (b) an analysis of the stories these women tell throughthe lens of the Salieri effect and accumulative disadvantage; © other realities that may be revealed; (d)an assessment of the usefulness of the Salieri effect and accumulative disadvantage for explaining thephenomenon under review.Review of the LiteratureThe emergence of women teachers in the 1800s is remarkable considering long-standing Westerntraditions prohibiting women from this work. Women were to respect and rely on men’s authority; thusthey were thought to have little need of education, much less were they to provide it (Blount, 1998, p.11).Shakeshaft’s (1989) look at the number of women in school administration since 1905 uncoversconsistent male dominance in all positions except in the early days of the elementary schoolprincipalship. “Women have never been the majority of secondary principals or district superintendents”(Shakeshaft, 1989, p. 20).Ella Flagg Young was appointed the first woman superintendent of the Chicago schools in 1909 andRuth B. Love was appointed as the second woman superintendent of the Chicago public schools in1980 (Shakeshaft, 1989). Seventy-five years transpired from one appointment to the next with littlechange in the superintendent job prospects for women.Tyack and Hansot (1982) note the educational system has undergone a great deal of change duringthe twentieth century, but the social characteristics of superintendents have not. Almost allsuperintendents have been “married white males, middle-aged, Protestant, upwardly mobile, fromfavored ethnic groups, native-born, and of rural origins” (p. 169). In 1991, 594 of the nation’s 10,683 K-12 superintendents were women (Bell & Chase, 1993). The male dominance of the occupation isstriking because superintendents rise from the ranks of teachers, 70 percent of whom are women(Kaufman, 1989).While the presence of women in the prestigious professions of medicine and law has increased slowlyover the last twenty years, the superintendency has remained resistant to women’s integration, despitethe fact that half the graduate students in programs of educational administration are now women,(Miller, 1986, p. 11).The superintendency is a difficult job in today’s world of education. Various citizen groups seek inputinto educational policy making interest groups whose main concerns are not education. At the sametime, the charter school movement, privatization of public education services and management, andstate or mayoral takeovers of school board functions has also contributed to the erosion ofsuperintendents’ authority and policy-making leadership (Glass, 1997).MethodologyTheoretical FrameworkLorber (1983) discusses the interactive processes that keep women from positions of power anddescribes the “Salieri” phenomenon. She alludes to Peter Shaffer’s (1980) play, Amadeus, in whichMozart’s lack of social graces gives Salieri, the court composer and gatekeeper of musical patronagefor the Emperor Joseph, the occasion to prevent Mozart’s extraordinary accomplishments fromreceiving recognition.ProceduresThis study used qualitative methodology implementing an explanatory case study (Yin, 1984) usinginterviews to gather data collection. Interviews were conducted with ten successful women schoolprincipals or central office personnel with superintendent certification, but were not employed in the top-level education administrative job positions in public schools.Data AnalysisData was analyzed throughout the data collection process. Interview questions for the womenparticipants were based on the original theoretical proposition and research questions and wereimmediately transcribed and coded. Differences in repeating patterns were documented and analyzed.Data was coded for variants that could be defined as accumulative disadvantage. The lens of theSalieri effect was used to view the data and to reveal the influence of accumulative disadvantage on thelives of women who are in position for the job of the superintendency.FindingsPersonal and professional characteristicsParticipants were administrators in a variety of school districts across the state of Oklahoma includingsmall rural, suburban and larger urban schools in communities with populations ranging from 8,371 to506,132 on the current census. The school districts these women were employed in had studentenrollments that ranged from 1, 935 to 42, 302.Four women were elementary principals at sites with grades PreK-5. Two women were elementaryprincipals at sites with grades K-5. Two high school principals were interviewed at sites with grades 9-12. One middle school principal at her site with grades 6-8 and one assistant superintendent whosesite included grades PreK-12 and adult education were also interviewed.All participants had aspired to be a superintendent from 1 to 10 years. The ages of the participantsranged from 43-53 years of age. Nine women were Caucasian and one was African-American. Nineparticipants were married; one was divorced. Nine women had children and one did not. Table 1presents these demographics.Six participants possessed doctorates including four in education administration, one in studentpersonnel, guidance and counseling and one in curriculum and instruction. Nine had completedpostgraduate hours in educational administration while one had hours in school psychometry. Adetailed description of participants’ education information can be found in Table 2.The years of administrative experience the respondents possessed ranged from 1 to 23 years.Additional administrative positions these respondents have held in the past included elementary,middle school, junior high and high school assistant principals, arts coordinator, special educationdirector, education services coordinator, special services director, instruction specialist, curriculumspecialist and curriculum director. Table 3 summarizes participants’ career information.All respondents had the career goal of obtaining the job of the superintendency if they could find theright “fit” with a school district that wanted them. One respondent would like either a superintendent’sposition or a position at the university level.DemographicsIt was evident that disadvantages described throughout this data created an impact on the majority ofparticipants’ career choices. Disadvantages were discovered in all aspects of respondents’ personaldata such as age, race, marital status, if they had children, residence location, family and mentorsupport.Respondents’ age span was broad, but age was not identified as a detractor from what they wanted toachieve in life. However, older respondents revealed more of a reluctance to move their residence inorder to possess the superintendency.Marital status proved to be a disadvantage in individual circumstances when relocating could wreckhavoc on the personal family life. Changing spouses’ jobs, children’s schools, friends and churchesproved to be a disadvantage that would make a direct hit upon respondents’ decisions about theircareers. It was reported that children were an advantage to respondents for their love and support. Yet,disadvantages were multiplied as most respondents had to constantly reevaluate their career goalsuntil children were grown and left the home. The majority of respondents were disadvantaged by puttingothers first in their lives and putting their own careers on hold.Half of the participants stated they did not want to relocate to become a superintendent. This resulted inlimited career options. The disadvantages were present as respondents perceived the need to onlylook for the superintendency in a smaller town or large city, thereby creating fewer options in careers.Career TrajectoriesDisadvantages were abundant and created by staying in the same job position for too long with nofurther advancement and looking for the perfect fit for a job. Due to the accumulated disadvantages,participants appeared to be reluctant and too guarded to find a superintendent’s job position.EducationRespondents who obtained the same amount of education and degrees, but who wee employed inelementary education communicated more disadvantages that accumulated as they tried to advance tohigher levels or positions in central offices at the director or coordinator level, assistant principal orprincipalship. Participants discovered they were being “held back” for being accomplished without achange to progress and become successful as is explained in the Salieri effect (Clark & Corcoran,1986).District DemographicsThe lack of diversity in some schools proved to be a disadvantage due to the lack of experiencerespondents acquired working with different people. This disadvantage could also accumulate causingfewer opportunities of obtaining a superintendent’s position in diverse areas of Oklahoma or otherstates with many cultures and races. Advantages were present for participants working with diversepeople giving them a more marketable tool to use in schools where diversity abounds and is importantto the community.Perspectives about Careers in EducationRespondents possessed a very high awareness of their particular requirements for their current jobsand what they should have or lack to obtain the superintendent’s job position. Disadvantages couldaccumulate if aspirants acquire only the knowledge and skills for one particular district with an absenceof awareness for what other districts require for their own superintendents.Career Impacts-Accumulated Disadvantages and AdvantagesAll respondents reported many different types of disadvantages, but many revealed similarexperiences, doubts and fears about disadvantages that appear constantly in educationaladministration. Disadvantages such as not being listed to or taken seriously, limited opportunities foracceptance and advancement, gendered expectations from others, professional and organizationalisolation and diminished quality in their personal lives had accumulated for respondents.Strategies for SuccessAll respondents believed women who aspire for the superintendency could succeed. Being diversifiedin several areas was reported as important and can prove competency in multiple areas.Participants reported it was necessary to promote your success as proof of progress andachievement. This strategy could counteract the accumulation of some disadvantages in the course ofcareers. Finding the right school to become successful as superintendent is a strategy all participantsexplained would be an advantage.Applicability of the Salieri Effect (1986) and Accumulative DisadvantageIt is clear from the data that respondents reported a wide spectrum of accumulative disadvantages thatappeared to support the Salieri effect (Clark & Cocoran, 1986) and the processes of accumulativedisadvantage.ConclusionsThe findings of this study provided insight into the under-representation of women in thesuperintendency despite their over-representation in the teaching profession. The narrative revealedthe complexities of aspirants’ lives and career paths that included their capabilities and their difficulties.The efficacy of the Salieri effect (Clark & Corcoran, 1986) and accumulative disadvantage as aneffective tool for exploring the lack of women superintendents even though many women are certifiedand qualified to gain this top administrative level has been demonstrated. An important conclusionreveals the superintendency is a very strong position of power that is quite different from the ordinarylower-level administrative positions respondents have more commonly held in educationaladministration. Inequalities exist for superintendent certified and qualified women who are positionedand aspire for the superintendency, yet cannot achieve that objective due to the accumulation ofdisadvantages they have amassed over the years.ImplicationsThis study also contributes to the knowledge base of educational administration by documenting theexperiences of ten aspiring female superintendents. The information presented analyzes the passageof these individuals throughout their career path and documents the barriers present for femalesdesiring the superintendents’ job position.An important inference of this study is that accumulated disadvantages were clearly found for thefemale aspiring superintendents interviewed. For those women in educational administration who planto aspire and place themselves for the superintendency, this suggests that they should concernthemselves with controlling the accumulation of disadvantages within their careers and strive toaccumulate many advantages that will assist in balancing out the disadvantages.ReferencesBell, C., and S. Chase. 1993. The underrepresentation of women in school leadership. InThe new politics of race and gender, ed. P. Zodhiates and C. Marshall. 1992.Washington, DC: Falmer Press.Blount, J. M. 1998. Destined to rule the schools: Women and the superintendency1873-1995. Albany: State University of New York Press.Blount, J. M. 1999. Turning out the ladies: Elected women superintendents and thepush for the appointive system, 1900-1935. In Sacred dreams: Women and the superintendency, 9-27. Albany: State University of New York Press.Carlson, R. 1972. School superintendents: Careers and performance. Columbus, OH:Charles E. Merrill Publishing Company.Clark, S. M., and M. Corcoran. 1986. Perspectives on the professional socialization ofwomen faculty: A case of accumulative disadvantage. Journal of HigherEducation, 57: 20-43.Glass, T. 1997. The superintendency, yesterday, today and tomorrow. In Becoming aSuperintendent: Challenges of school district leadership, ed. C. Chapman,19-39. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill.Howard, S. 1975. Why aren’t women administering our schools: The status of womenpublic school teachers and the factors hindering their promotion intoadministration. Arlington, VA: National Council of Administrative Women inEducation.Kaufman, D. R. 1989. Professional women: How real are the recent gains? In Women: Afeminist perspective, ed. J. Freeman, 329-46. Mountain View, CA: MayfieldPublishing Co.Keller, B. 1999. Women superintendents: Few and far between. Education Week19 (11): 1.Lorber, J. 1983. Women as colleagues: The Matthew effect and the Salieri phenomenon.Paper presented at American Sociological Association Meeting, Detroit, MI.Morrison, A., R. White, E.Van Velsor, and the Center for Creative Leadership. 1992.Breaking the glass ceiling: Can women reach the top of America’s largestcorporations? Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.Shaffer, P. 1980. Amadeus. New York: Harper & Row.Shakeshaft, C. 1989. Women in educational administration. Newbury Park,CA: Sage.Tyack, D., and E. Hansot. 1982. Managers of virtue: Public school leadership inAmerica, 1820-1980. New York: Basic Books.Yin, R. K. 1984. Case study research, design, and methods. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.VN:R_U [1.9.11_1134]

Women in the Superintendency: A Study of Accumulative Disadvantage

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Women in the Superintendency: A Study of Accumulative Disadvantage

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