Are our understandings of GMOs based in reality? Are GMOs bad? Are they good? Should we make them? These are challenging questions. We, as a society, must discuss the issues. 
Posting about the science associated with GMOs from In All Things - an online hub committed to the claim that the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ has implications for the entire world.
http://inallthings.org/the-science-associated-with-producing-gmos

Stoub, Darren

English

Dordt College

Digital Collections @ Dordt Faculty Work Comprehensive List 11-11-2015 Science Associated with Producing GMOs Darren Stoub Dordt College, darren.stoub@dordt.edu Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcollections.dordt.edu/faculty_work  Part of the Christianity Commons, and the Medical Biochemistry Commons Recommended Citation Stoub, D. (2015). Science Associated with Producing GMOs. Retrieved from https://digitalcollections.dordt.edu/faculty_work/380 This Blog Post is brought to you for free and open access by Digital Collections @ Dordt. It has been accepted for inclusion in Faculty Work Comprehensive List by an authorized administrator of Digital Collections @ Dordt. For more information, please contact ingrid.mulder@dordt.edu. Science Associated with Producing GMOs Abstract "Are our understandings of GMOs based in reality? Are GMOs bad? Are they good? Should we make them? These are challenging questions. We, as a society, must discuss the issues." Posting about the science associated with GMOs from In All Things - an online hub committed to the claim that the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ has implications for the entire world. http://inallthings.org/the-science-associated-with-producing-gmos/ Keywords In All Things, CRISPR, transgenic organisms, GMOs, disease Disciplines Christianity | Medical Biochemistry This blog post is available at Digital Collections @ Dordt: https://digitalcollections.dordt.edu/faculty_work/380 The Science Associated with Producing GMOs inallthings.org /the-science-associated-with-producing-gmos/Darren StoubI am a medicinal biochemist, which means I discover new medicines and seek to understand how themedicine affects the physiology of diseased cells. Recently, my research has focused on looking for drugsthat treat Systematic Lupus Erythermatosus (SLE), which is one of the diseases called lupus. SLE iscaused by genetic mutations in a protein involved in the immune system’s inflammation pathways. Whilewe could do our testing on patients with lupus, the amount of blood we need would be excessive and thecontinual drawing of blood would be intrusive; some might suggest it is even unethical. We could do ourexperiments on immortal cell lines, such as HEK or HeLa cells; however, we need cell lines that mimiclupus cells. As a result, we do genetic engineering on human cells to create mutated human cells thatdisplay the characteristics of lupus cells. In my daily work, I create GMOs.In this article, I want to pull the curtain back on the science associated with GMOs, provide a few historicalmethods of generating GMOs and highlight a new method, termed CRISPR-Cas9, which will significantlyimpact the ease by which GMOs are created. Through an understanding of these ideas, we hope toprovide a working vocabulary so that the resultant ethical discussions can be well-informed.A GMO is “an organism or microorganism whose genetic material has been altered by means of geneticengineering.” Genetic engineering utilizes a wide variety of molecular biology techniques, all of which havethe same goal: to modify the genetic code of an organism. By the modification of the genetic code of anorganism–its genotype–the physical manifestations of the genes, its phenotype, can be altered. While thecorrelation between the genotype and phenotype is often complex, the central dogma of molecular biologydefines a simple understanding. Briefly, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), the genetic information, codes forprotein, the doers of almost all cellular processes. The chemical identity of DNA is based upon fourchemical building blocks, called nucleotides: adenosine (A), thymidine (T), guanosine (G) and cytidine (C).The sequence of these building blocks, that is, the order in which these chemicals are connected, providesthe genetic code. Proteins are chemicals produced in living systems based upon the genetic code. That is,proteins are a sequence of amino acids that are assembled into this sequence because of the sequence ofthe genetic code. Proteins, because of their sequence, are capable of doing many tasks such as:catalyzing biochemical reactions (for example, HMG-CoA Reductase, which is an importantenzyme involved with the bodies normal production of cholesterol)facilitating organismal communication (for example, insulin, a protein, interacts with the insulinreceptor, a protein, which allows the pancreas to tell the rest of the body that blood sugar levels aretoo high)providing structural support for an organism (for example, the protein dystrophin provides a tetherbetween the cell and the actin fibers which allow muscles to work effectively)transporting chemicals into and out of cells (for example, cystic fibrosis transmembraneconductance regulator (CFTR) facilitates the transport of “salt” in lung tissue)If proteins are not produced, are modified or new proteins are added to a cell, the cell will behavedifferently. As a result, if we change the DNA, which codes for a protein, we can change the function of theprotein, which is the basis of all genetic engineering. An interesting observation about how we currentlyaccomplish genetic engineering is that the methods/modifications are seen naturally, so we have learnedhow to do genetic engineering, because we observe it in nature.There are three main types of genetic modifications or mutations that affect the phenotype of an organismand are, therefore, used in genetic engineering. First, genes can be knocked-out, which means that agene within the organism has been modified so that the cell no longer produces the protein. Genes areoften knocked out by modifying the gene, which often results in the protein not being produced and,therefore, the change in genotype results in a different phenotype. An example of a naturally occurringknock-out mutation can be seen in Duchenne’s muscular dystrophy, in which the protein dystrophin is notproduced, thereby substantially impacting the structure of muscles.Second, genes can be added, which means all of the genetic information required for a new or differentprotein is provided to an organism. By doing so, an organism is given new abilities that were not historicallypresent in the organism. A natural example of this is seen during viral infections, such as HIV, in which theHIV virus will insert its genes into the DNA of white blood cells, causing the cells to produce new proteins,specifically the ones used to make new HIV particles.Third, genes can be modified through point mutations, which cause subtle changes in the protein function.By exchanging even one nucleotide within a gene, the resulting protein may have one different amino acid,which will change its chemical structure, which will change its ability to function normally. A naturallyoccurring example of a point mutation is seen in sickle cell anemia, in which an A is changed to a T withinone of the genes for hemoglobin, which results in a valine being inserted at position 6 within thehemoglobin instead of a glutamic acid, which results in a new propensity for the hemoglobin proteins toform “non-natural” protein fibers, which forces the cells to change shape, which seriously impacts thecirculatory system, which causes significant disease.Using these natural examples, humans have developed four main methods to introduce genetic changesinto an organism. First, we use crossing experiments, which has been part of agronomy and animalhusbandry for millennia. Simply, we take two different, yet genetically related organisms and cross fertilizethe organisms so that when they produce progeny, the progeny are genetically different. This method hasbeen used to create award winning tomatoes, hairless cats, and amazing children. Using current genomesequencing techniques, we are now able to see that the results of genetic crossing is often one of theaforementioned genetic changes.Second, we can use a process termed mutation breeding, in which an organism is bombarded withdestructive conditions, such as gamma irradiation, reactive chemicals or nutritionally modified diets. Oftenthese conditions damage the DNA, which the organism attempts to repair, which sometimes results inmistakes, which results in genetic changes. Examples of products we use that are created using thismethod include the Rio Star grapefruit, which is loved for its deep red color, and Golden Promise barley,which can be grown using salt water. It should be noted that even our own sun can causes these types ofmutations.Third, we can transfect or transduce the organism. In this experiment, genes, in the form of purified DNA orDNA appropriately packaged in viruses, can be introduced to an organism and, under the correctconditions, the gene can be permanently added to the affected cell’s genome. An example is seen inRound-up ready crops, which are created by the addition of a bacterial gene, which codes for a pointmutant of an enzyme normally found in plants; however, the bacterial enzyme is unaffected by glyphosate,the active ingredient in Round-up. Plants without this added gene are killed when Round-up isadministered. A second example is used to treat patients with a specific genetic variation of cystic fibrosis,which makes the aforementioned CFTR not function well, which results in the production of a suffocatingmucus in the patient’s lungs. In the therapy, a normal gene for CFTR protein is added to a cells within thepatient’s lungs using a lentivirus. The new gene provides the patient’s cells the ability to regulate theconsistency of the mucus coating their lungs, thereby mitigating the symptoms of CF.One of the drawbacks for each of the first three techniques is that either generation of the mutation orincorporation of the new DNA is random. While such an approach can be valid if the added DNA is testedto ensure that it will not cause other problems (the round-up example) or if the cells are not immortal (CFexample). However, the randomness does cause me pause, either because of the random nature orbecause of the amount of work it requires to test the new cells generated using these techniques.The fourth technique used to generate mutations is called CRISPR-Cas9. Using this technique, we arenow able to modify DNA with unprecedented specificity and precision, which might alleviate my pauserelated to the randomness of the older techniques. Without describing the details, CRISPR-Cas9represents an atomic-level scissors, with which I can modify any gene, and an atomic-level thread, which Ican insert any piece of DNA, so that I can make any subtle (or grandiose) changes in a living organism’sDNA. In the last 2 years, over 300 articles have used this technique to modify the genome of variousorganisms, from plants to bacteria to human blood cells and reportedly even to human embryos. Oneexample of its use is that the bone marrow from a sickle cell anemia patient has been genetically modifiedto remove and repair the aberrant hemoglobin gene, thereby, providing a treatment for the disease.CRISPR-Cas9 is a game changer for all things related to genetic engineering.  Genetic engineering is nowsimple and CRISPR-Cas9 replaces the other techniques which could take years, with a technique that canbe completed in a manner of weeks. Despite its power and beauty, I once again pause in my use ofgenetic engineering. While it can be a useful technique to bring healing, if it is used poorly, there is thepotential for unbridled harm. If we mess around with the wrong genes, there could be introduction of newdisease. It is such a revolution that the developer of the technique is calling for a moratorium on the use ofthe technique on humans in order to encourage all of society to discuss the implications of this powerfultool on eugenics.In my work, I create GMOs, using the same methods that God has used to create his GMOs, that is, as Hehas revealed Himself throughout His creation. I do so to seek treatments for disease; He has done so toreveal His glory through the processes by which He has created an intricate and detailed world. Am Iplaying God when I do these experiments? Can CRISPR be used to bring glory to God? Is it justified to usethis technique? Is part of God’s unveiling of His kingdom the fact that we now have a glimmer into howGod creates or redeems His creation? Does our understanding of genetic modification further show thatthe heavens (and the inner workings of a cell) declare the glory of God? Does using CRISPR bring glory toGod? Are GMOs bad?I’ll leave you with a scientific and political conundrum. Dr. Kevin Dorn, during his tenure at the University ofMinnesota, was seeking to develop a new cover crop that could be used to decrease soil erosion onfarmland and increase soil resilience and productivity, while not impacting the subsequent year’s croprotation. Using a detailed understanding of the genetics of various cover crops, Dr. Dorn performedcrossing experiments, hoping for genetic changes in several specific genes. After conducting the crossingexperiments, analyzing the genetic sequences of thousands of plant progeny and several years of work,Dr. Dorn was successful in generating a few mutants that had desirable phenotypical traits, but wasunsuccessful at targeting all of the genes of interest. When I asked him why he didn’t use CRISPR togenerate his mutants and save himself several years of work, his answer was that plants derived fromcrossing experiments are not considered GMOs and, therefore, acceptable, while plants generated using“genetic engineering” are considered GMOs and, therefore, less acceptable and federally regulated. Theplants would be identical, irrespective of the methodology used to produce them.Are our understandings of GMOs based in reality? Are GMOs bad? Are they good? Should we makethem? These are challenging questions. We, as a society, must discuss the issues. Hopefully, this articlehas provided some common language and understanding that will allow us to have these discussions.

Science Associated with Producing GMOs

https://digitalcollections.dordt.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1380&context=faculty_work

Science Associated with Producing GMOs

Abstract

Similar works

Full text

Available Versions

Dordt College