State Aid in the Interface of Law and Politics : Environmental Protection as an Example

Abstract

State Aid in the Interface of Law and Politics: Environmental Protection as an Example Kristian Siikavirta In this study subsidies are analysed as an instrument for environmental protection. The main focus is on the national legal rules regulating the use of subsidies and also on the actual use of subsidies for environmental protection in Finland. The Environmental subsidies for agriculture are not covered. The aim is to clarify the legal characteristics of subsidies in general and the environmental subsidies in particular. Secondly legal principles found are analysed in order to uncover their theoretical appropriateness as well as their practical effects when working with environmental policy which primary tools are legal oblications given by public authorities. The analysis is based on a functional approach. The chain of activities needed when subsidies are used is developed. It contains following activities namely discovering the problem, setting the targets, choosing the instruments, establishing the subsidy programs, distributing the benefits, monitoring effects and firm level use of the subsidies, and evaluating the effects for future improvement. First this study focuses on the legal rules regulating the establishment and planning of a subsidy program. Secondly is analysed the law regulating the distribution of the benefits to firms by the public authorities. This analysis sheds light on the dynamics between these the seemingly unconnected phases and gives the means to discover the features of good legal rules and regulation. The theoretical background used to uncover the social connections of the environmental subsidies is, in the first instance, the economic theory of environmental protection. That normative theory provides criteria for the evaluation of subsidies as an environmental policy instrument and also for the evaluation of the legal rules and regulation on environmental subsidies. The establishment of actual subsidy programs and set goals can be analysed and explained through some basic ideas from public choice theory and from the related interest group theory. The administrative procedure governing the distribution of subsidies can be analysed by applying the economic theory of administrative law (based on transaction costs) and also by using the principal agent theory founded on the idea of uncertain information between the legislator and public authorities. The common theme of these different theories is the analysis of the decision-making process of public authorities on the different levels of society. The common to that decision-making setting is the question how to build a good environmental subsidy program and how to distribute the funds to beneficiary firms and industries in an efficient and justified way. These theories helps to evaluate the true functioning of legal rules and regulation. This aim could not be achieved through research carried out only using traditional legal dogmatics. The selected versatile theoretical structure offer some new arguments to legal argumentation. In this study subsidies are defined widely as all acts of state or public power which are meant to give persons or organisations positive economic incentives to act according to the legislators will. The European Union legislation, namely the treaty establishing the European Community article 87(1), makes a division in the definition of public subsidies between two subclasses - state aid and other public subsidies. The use of state aid is restricted because of its alleged harmful effects on competition and on welfare. The member states are also supervised by The European Commission. The definition of environmental protection is functional covering all voluntary or mandatory acts by individual persons or firms which prevent or reduce the harmful effects of human activities on nature or on other individuals. According to this definition many energy policy and transportation policy measures are considered as being part of environmental policy. Public subsidies or positive economic measures intended to encourage environmentally sound consumer behavior are considered as subsidies for environmental protection. The first part of the study presents the versatile theoretical foundation used in the analysis. The different strands of economic theory are combined with the different areas of law. The idea of using economic theory in the legal argumentation is here supported by a teleological theory of legal interpretation and an instrumental and functional view on law. From this point of departure the explanation of the law is the need to regulate individual action by defining desired (normative) behavior. Other modes of behavior are deterred by legal sanctions or by rules which raise the opportunity cost of normative behavior. Desired behaviour can also be induced by economic subsidies. In general individual action is seen as rational where rationality is based on individual goals and external and internal motivations. The second part analyses the legal definition of state aid, the European treaty provisions on state aid and the commission s regulation of state aid used in member states. In general, state aid or public subsidies are seen as welfare-reducing act both in legal argumentation and in economic theory unless it is targeted to internalize specific market failures. The normative theory of environmental policy does not support the idea of subsidising environmental protection measures by private firms or individuals and the environmental law has accepted this idea (polluter pays principle). However, European legislation treats state aid for environmental purposes more favourably than other aid mainly because of it s horizontal nature and the constant need to improve environmental quality. The third part focuses on the Finnish environmental subsidies and state aids. The timeframe covers the years 1990, 1995 and 2003. During that time public support for environmental protection in the form of subsidies in Finland has increased both in monetary terms and when individual support programmes or measures are counted. Measured in monetary terms, the trend seems to be rising mainly because of the energy and climate policy. The subsidy instruments that have been used have been changed toward more general measures. Moreover, many new tax subsidies have been created to promote production methods that are environmentally friendly. One reason to changed the aid patterns is no doubt the extensive and restrictive legal regulation of state aid both on the European level and on the national level. The fourth part of this study analyses the law and legal principles that rule the administrative procedures which state aid authorities must follow when giving public money to applicants. This area of law seems to involve many features intended to make individual aid decisions more efficient. At the same time those rules increase the cost of administration and widen the scope of administrative discretion. Together with a limited possibility to appeal and the limited publicity of individual decisions, these features make this area of legislation and administrative action very volnerable to criticism and to even malpractice. The theoretical analysis and the studying of Finnish environmental subsidies and law regulating them shows some legal and practical problems. Individual aid decisions are easily criticized because of the high efficiency requirement of the current law. At the same time, administrative discretion is wide and it seems to be insufficiently ruled by legislation or by the state budget. Furthermore, legal rules oblige public authors to monitor beneficiaries very closely. It is likely that this monitoring turns out to be random because of limited resources. As a result, this widens the power of public authorities. The legal analysis of subsidy programs in this study and the economic analyses that have been made on the effects of various subsidy programs by other researchers mentioned in this study indicate that the environmental subsidies in Finland are mainly used as a strategic tool in the legislative process where different interest groups must be satisfied. However, this does not enhance the efficiency of subsidy programs. State aid and subsidies could function in better coherence with the predominant command and control type of environmental policy. The informative position of the environmental administrators could be improved if the information coming from the aid applications and from the individual decisions could be used to improve the mandatory environmental rules and practices. Nevertheless, there is no indication to this effect in the Finnish environmental subsidies system.Tutkimuksessa tarkastellaan julkista tukea ympäristönsuojelun ohjauskeinona. Tarkastelun kohteena on julkisen tuen käytön oikeudellinen sääntely Suomessa ja tuen käyttötapa elinkeinotoiminnan ympäristöhaittojen ehkäisemisessä lukuun ottamatta maatalouselinkeinoja. Tavoitteena on luoda kuva julkisesta tuesta oikeudellisena instituutiona ja analysoida julkisen tuen sääntelyn oikeudellisia periaatteita erityisesti niiden tarkoituksenmukaisuuden kannalta. Tarkastelu perustuu tehtävänmukaiseen toimintaketjuun, joka muodostuu ongelman havaitsemisesta, tavoitteiden asettamisesta, keinojen valinnasta, tukiohjelman rakennusvaiheesta, tuen jakamisesta ja valvonnasta sekä vaikutusten arvioinnista. Tutkimuksessa keskitytään erityisesti oikeudelliseen sääntelyyn, joka kohdistuu tukiohjelman rakentamisvaiheeseen ja tuen viranomaisten toimesta tapahtuvan jakoon. Tutkimuksessa pyritään tuomaan esiin näiden kahden periaatteessa erillisen vaiheen väliset yhteydet ja sen perusteella voidaan esittää arvioita toimivan oikeudellisen sääntelyn sisällöstä. Julkisen tuen yhteiskunnallisia kytkentöjä avaavat ympäristötaloustieteen teoriaan perustuvat ohjauskeinojen arviointikriteerit, julkisen valinnan teoria lainsäätäjän (poliittisesta) päätöksenteosta ja viranomaisen toiminnan sääntelyä kuvaava hallinto-oikeuden talousteoria sekä lainsäätäjän ja viranomaisen välistä suhdetta kuvaava päämies-agentti teoria. Yhteisenä tekijänä näissä teorioissa on erityyppisten toimijoiden päätöksenteon ja päätöstilanteiden tarkastelu. Oikeustieteessä yhteiskunnallinen tutkimusote antaa mahdollisuuden arvioida oikeudellisen sääntelyn ja periaatteiden toimivuutta ja se tuo esiin oikeudellisen sääntelyn ongelmakohtia tavalla, joka ei olisi mahdollista puhtaasti lainopillisen näkökulman avulla. Oikeuden ja lain tehtävänä pidetään inhimillisen toiminnan sääntelyä osoittamalla toivotut normin mukaiset käyttäytymismallit ja asettamalla seuraamusten avulla norminvastaiselle käyttäytymiselle hinta eli vaihtoehtoiskustannus. Julkisella tuella ymmärretään tässä tutkimuksessa julkisen vallan toimia, joilla yksilöitä ja yhteisöjä kannustetaan taloudellisesti toimimaan lainsäätäjän haluamalla tavalla. Euroopan Unionin lainsäädäntö jakaa julkisen tuen oikeudellisesti artiklan 87(1) mukaiseen valtiontukeen ja muihin tukiin. Julkisen tuen käyttö on kielletty, jos se vaikuttaa jäsenvaltioiden väliseen kauppaan. Euroopan komissio valvoo jäsenvaltioiden valtiontuen käyttöä. Ympäristösuojelulla tarkoitetaan tässä tutkimuksessa laajasti vapaaehtoisia tai säännösten edellyttämiä toimia, joilla pyritään vähentämään tai ehkäisemään inhimillisen toiminnan luonnonympäristölle aiheuttamia haittoja. Tutkimuksen toisessa luvussa tarkastellaan yleisesti valtiontuen oikeudellista määrittelyä ja eurooppaoikeudellista sääntelyä ja valvontamekanismeja sekä yleensä julkisen tuen ja ympäristönsuojelun tuen ominaisuuksia. Kolmannessa luvussa selvitetään ympäristönsuojelun tukien käyttö Suomessa vuosina 1990, 1995 ja 2003. Tarkastelu perustuu valtion talousarvioesitysten ja lainvalmisteluaineiston antamaan tietoon. Ympäristönsuojelun julkinen tuki on Suomessa vähäistä. Tarkastelujaksolla se on kuitenkin lisääntynyt merkittävästi lähinnä ilmasto- ja energiapolitiikan vuoksi. Merkittävimmät tukimuodot ovat verotukia. Harkinnanvaraisten tukien käyttöä rajoittavat oikeudelliset rajoitukset ja hallinnolliset kustannukset. Julkisen tuen käytön sääntely on toteutettu hierarkkisesti alhaisen tason säädöksin eli lähinnä valtioneuvoston asetuksilla tai sitäkin alemmanasteisin säädöksin. Lainsäädäntö ja valtion talousarvioesitys eivät juuri ohjaa tukiviranomaisten toimintaa. Tarkasteltaessa harkinnanvaraisten tukien käyttöä ohjaavia säännöksiä havaitaan, että säädökset ja oikeudelliset periaatteet eivät juuri tue ympäristönsuojelun julkisen tuen tarkoituksenmukaista käyttöä. Tukiviranomaisen harkintavallan sääntely on ristiriitaista, tukipäätösten julkisuus on puutteellista, tuenhakijoiden ja näiden kilpailijoiden oikeudellinen asema on epätyydyttävä, tukiviranomaisen velvollisuudet johtavat sisäisten resurssien epätarkoituksenmukaiseen käyttöön eikä tukien myöntäminen tue viranomaisten muiden tehtävien hoitamista

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