Although urban ecosystems are governed by the same ecological “laws” as rural ecosystems, the
relative importance of certain ecological patterns and processes differs between the two types of ecosystems.
For instance, as compared to rural areas, urban habitats are usually more islandlike, more often represent early
successional stages, and are more easily invaded by alien species. All these features are results of the intense human
influence on urban landscapes. The question then arises whether a distinct theory of urban ecology is needed for
understanding ecological patterns and processes in the urban setting. The answer is no, because urban ecosystems
can be successfully studied using existing ecological theories, such as the metapopulation theory. However, due to
the intense human presence, approaches that include the human aspect are useful in studying urban systems. For
instance, the “human ecosystem model,” which emphasizes human impact by identifying social components with
connections to ecology, is a useful approach in urban studies. This model, combined with the urban–rural gradient
approach, forms an effective tool for studying key ecological features of urban ecosystems. Better understanding
of these features would increase our ability to predict changes that land use causes in urban ecosystems, and would
help to integrate ecology better into urban planning
