A. Araújo

C. E A. Coimbra

F. Bouchet

F. M. Rick

G. C. Rocha

K. Dittmar

K. Reinhard

L. F. Ferreira

English

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University of Nebraska - Lincoln 
DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln 
Papers in Natural Resources Natural Resources, School of 
December 2002 
Crab Louse Infestation in Pre-Columbian America 
F. M. Rick 
Escola Nacional de Saúde Pública, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 
G. C. Rocha 
Escola Nacional de Saúde Pública, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 
K. Dittmar 
Institut für Parasitologie, Universität Leipzig, Germany 
C. E. A. Coimbra Jr. 
Escola Nacional de Saúde Pública, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 
Karl J. Reinhard 
University of Nebraska at Lincoln, kreinhard1@mac.com 
See next page for additional authors 
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Rick, F. M.; Rocha, G. C.; Dittmar, K.; Coimbra, C. E. A. Jr.; Reinhard, Karl J.; Bouchet, F.; Ferreira, L. F.; and 
Araújo, A., "Crab Louse Infestation in Pre-Columbian America" (2002). Papers in Natural Resources. 93. 
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Authors 
F. M. Rick, G. C. Rocha, K. Dittmar, C. E. A. Coimbra Jr., Karl J. Reinhard, F. Bouchet, L. F. Ferreira, and A. 
Araújo 
This article is available at DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln: https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/
natrespapers/93 
1266 THE JOURNAL OF PARASITOLOGY, VOL. 88, NO. 6, DECEMBER 2002
J. Parasitol., 88(6), 2002, pp. 1266–1267
q American Society of Parasitologists 2002
Crab Louse Infestation in Pre-Columbian America
F. M. Rick*, G. C. Rocha*, K. Dittmar†, C. E. A. Coimbra, Jr.*, K. Reinhard‡\, F. Bouchet§, L. F. Ferreira*, and A. Araújo*, *Escola
Nacional de Saúde Pública, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rua Leopoldo Bulhões 1480, 21041-210 Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; †Institut für
Parasitologie, Universität Leipzig, 04103 Leipzig, Germany; ‡School of Natural Resources Sciences, University of Nebraska, 126 Bessey Hall,
Lincoln, Nebraska 68588-0340; §Laboratoire de Paléoparasitologie, EA3308 CNRS ESA 8045, Faculté de Pharmacie, Université de Reims, Rue
Cognacq Jay 51, 51096 Reims, France. \To whom correspondence should be addressed. e-mail: kreinhard1@unl.edu
FIGURE 1. Pthirus pubis egg found in pubic hair of a Chilean mum-
my, Atacama desert.
ABSTRACT: Until now, Pthirus pubis infestation in ancient human pop-
ulations had only been recorded in the Old World. We found crab lice
on South American mummified bodies from the Atacama Desert region.
Crab louse eggs were found attached to the pubic hairs of a 2,000-yr-
old Chilean mummy. Well-preserved adults were found in sediment and
clothing from a Peruvian mummy dated 1,000 yr ago. Paleoparasito-
logical evidence expands the knowledge of the distribution of this ec-
toparasite in ancient populations. As with many other parasites, pubic
lice recorded in Andean populations show the antiquity of this parasite
in the New World. It is likely that P. pubis entered the continent with
early human migration to the New World.
Louse infestation in ancient human populations has been recorded in
different geographic regions throughout the world. Greek, Egyptian,
Chinese, and other Old World ancient medical texts referred to head
and body lice infestation (Hoeppli, 1956; Doby, 1996). The first paleo-
parasitological studies were carried out by Ruffer (1921) in Egyptian
mummies, in which Pediculus humanus was found. Later, South and
North American Indian mummies were also found to be infested with
lice (Ewing, 1924). In recent studies, louse eggs, nits, and adults have
been recovered from the mummified scalps, archaeological sediments,
and coprolites (Reinhard, 1990; Araújo et al., 2000).
Here, we describe the first paleoparasitological record of crab louse
(P. pubis) infestation in the New World. All existing paleoparasitolog-
ical discoveries of crab lice have been in Europe from the first century
up to the 18th century (Kenward, 1999, 2001). All ancient European
specimens are adults found in sediment samples, preserved by anoxic
water logging or partial mineralization. There is no record of P. pubis
from the Old World mummies.
Pthirus pubis is normally restricted to the pubic and perianal hairs,
but occasionally other hairy parts of the trunk, legs, arms, and face may
be infested (Mueller, 1973; Burgess, 1995). The ectoparasite is sexually
transmitted, but close proximity or the use of the same bed or clothing
of an infested individual may result in infestation. The crab louse moves
very slowly on the human host, remaining attached to the same pubic
hair for a long period of time (Burns and Sims, 1988). Although itching
and secondary bacterial infection can result from bites, P. pubis does
not have the same epidemiological significance as does P. humanus in
typhus transmission (Burgess, 1995).
Two cases of crab louse infestation in South American prehistoric
indigenous populations are presented here. Both were recorded in the
Atacama Desert, one in Peru and the other in Chile. San Pedro de
Atacama in Chile is a small oasis village near the Andean Cordillera.
During pre-Columbian times it was a trading center for different cul-
tures from the Pacific coast to the Amazon forest on the opposite side
of the Andes. Because it was located in an oasis, the village attracted
people and their domestic animals, and diseases as well (Ferreira et al.,
2000).
Because of the climatic conditions in Atacama, the driest desert in
the world (Berenguer et al., 1985), many mummified bodies have been
found in the proximity of the oasis. Some of these mummies are radio-
carbon-dated, but the majority have estimated dates based on cultural
artifacts or burial accompaniments (Junqueira and Llagostera, 1994).
Thirty-seven mummies from San Pedro de Atacama, dated up to
2,000 yr old, were examined for parasites. All of them date to before
RESEARCH NOTES 1267
FIGURE 2. Pthirus pubis found in sediment and clothing associated
with a mummified human body, Chiribaya Culture, Peru.
the European conquest. Pubic hairs were present in four mummies, and
eggs were found attached to the pubic hair in 1 adult male mummy
(Fig. 1). The attachment site, morphology, and egg size (1 mm) confirm
the diagnosis of P. pubis.
The other P. pubis specimens came from a Peruvian archaeological
site named Chiribaya Baja, dated 1,050 to 800 yr before present. The
Chiribaya culture was situated in the south of Peru, in the Moquegua
Valley. Two P. pubis specimens and several P. humanus specimens
were found in the pleats of a piece of cloth associated with a female
mummy. It was not possible to determine the function of the piece of
cloth. One of the P. pubis specimens was only fragmentary, but the
other is well preserved (Fig. 2). Both are females. The foreleg is quite
slender, with a long fine claw (Busvine, 1951). The mid and hind legs
are strong with thick claws, and the characteristically compressed ab-
domen is wider than it is long. The preserved specimen measured 1.63
mm, which lies in the 1.5- to 2.0-mm distribution recorded for modern
crab lice (Matheson, 1950).
Crab lice are usually attached to the pubic and perianal hairs. It re-
mains unclear why P. pubis and P. humanus were found in the same
piece of cloth. Pubic hair of the mummy could not be found, so no
additional information regarding distribution or infestation levels could
be provided for paleoepidemiological inferences. Chiribaya mummies
are typically buried in textile wrappings, which includes the dead in-
dividual’s shirt, belt, hat, and other textiles. The textile might have been
part of this person’s clothing. The finding of P. pubis and P. humanus
is consistent with this hypothesis. The lice possibly moved into the
clothing after their host died.
Both findings expand our knowledge of crab lice distribution in pre-
historic times in pre-Columbian America. The discovery of crab lice
adds to the inventory of parasites that affected Andean peoples. Body
lice, head lice, and intestinal parasites such as pinworm, whipworm, the
tapeworm Diphyllobothrium pacificum (Reinhard et al., 1986), and Try-
panosoma cruzi (Guhl et al., 1999; Ferreira et al., 2000) already had
been found in prehistoric human populations from this region. It is quite
likely that the interchange of populations between the Andes and the
Amazon resulted in the exchange of parasites between the 2 areas. The
discoveries of ancient parasites show that prehistoric Americans and
Europeans had more parasites in common than was traditionally
thought. Furthermore, there appear to be no morphological differences
between archaeological and the present-day P. pubis. Their organic con-
servation allows for further studies in molecular biology aimed at ge-
netic comparisons.
This study was supported by Pronex/CNPq, Capes/Cofecub, and the
Fulbright Commission. The authors thank M. A. Costa and A. Llagos-
tera for providing archaeological material.
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Crab Louse Infestation in Pre-Columbian America

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