Introduction: In this study, we investigated contaminants in sediments of reverse osmosis water systems in Iraqi households. These filters are imported from the US and Taiwan and are available in the Iraqi market. The rate of environmental pollutions in residues of the water filters was examined by measuring alpha particles emission rates and the concentration of heavy metals.
Material and Methods: In this study, we measured the rate of alpha particles emission using CR-39 detector. Heavy elements were measured using an atomic absorption spectrometer.
Results: The highest value of cadmium was found in Ghadeer district and the lowest cadmium value in Alswag district. The highest value of lead was found in Ghadeer district and the lowest in Aljameha. The emission rates of alpha particles were found to be the lowest in the sediments of Ghadeer district, and the highest values were found in Khan Almkhdhar.
Conclusion: The average concentrations of dissolved Cd and Pb were higher than the safe limits for Iraq specifications and the world standard limit

Aseel Alfarhad

Ayad Resen

Basim Almayahi

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           Iranian Journal of Medical Physics  ijmp.mums.ac.ir Radionuclides and heavy elements in a water deposits of Reverse Osmosis system filters in Iraqi houses  Basim A. Almayahi 1*, Aseel F. Alfarhad 1, Ayad Hussein Resen2  1. Department of Environment, Faculty of Science, University of Kufa, Najaf Governorate, Iraq 2. General Directorate of Education in Najaf Researches and Studies Department, Najaf, Iraq   A R T I C L E  I N F O  A B S T R A C T Article type: Original Article   Introduction: In this study, we investigated contaminants in sediments of reverse osmosis water systems in Iraqi households. These filters are imported from the US and Taiwan and are available in the Iraqi market. The rate of environmental pollutions in residues of the water filters was examined by measuring alpha particles emission rates and the concentration of heavy metals.  Material and Methods: In this study, we measured the rate of alpha particles emission using CR-39 detector. Heavy elements were measured using an atomic absorption spectrometer.  Results: The highest value of cadmium was found in Ghadeer district and the lowest cadmium value in Alswag district. The highest value of lead was found in Ghadeer district and the lowest in Aljameha. The emission rates of alpha particles were found to be the lowest in the sediments of Ghadeer district, and the highest values were found in Khan Almkhdhar.  Conclusion: The average concentrations of dissolved Cd and Pb were higher than the safe limits for Iraq specifications and the world standard limit. Article history: Received: Nov 13, 2017 Accepted: May 24, 2018   Keywords:  Reverse Osmosis CR-39 World Health Organization Radionuclides      ►Please cite this article as: Almayahi BA, AlfarhadAF, Resen AH.  Radionuclides and heavy elements in a water deposits of Reverse Osmosis system filters in Iraqi houses. Iran J Med Phys 2019; 16:15-18. 10.22038/ijmp.2018.27429.1289.    Introduction Radionuclides in drinking water have turned into a significant issue [1]. Contamination with radionuclides exists throughout the city because medical facility and nuclear power wastes are released in water [2]. Radionuclides occur naturally as elements in water, air, soils, and rocks as a consequence of the radioactive decay of 238U and 232Th. This decay occurs as a result of radiation energy. Radon and radium isotopes of the 238U and 232Th series exist in groundwater. Ionizing radiation strikes living organism cells.  Reverse-osmosis (RO) is a pressure-driven membrane separation process, which was introduced by The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) as a system compliance technology for radionuclides. It can remove 99% of these radionuclides and other contaminants such as arsenic, nitrate, and microbial contaminants [3]. RO unit can be automated and compact, which make the system more appropriate. Membrane failure, which can allow contaminants to pass through to the finished water, is a key concern. Colloids and bacteria can foul a membrane. The product water needs the addition of corrosion inhibitors, as well as pH and alkalinity adjustment upwards by the addition of alkalinity. These actions prevent compliance issues in the distribution system like elevated level of Pb and Cu. Radionuclides in the liquid residual impact disposal option due to the high level of contaminants of water. RO effectively removes inorganic contaminants, including heavy metals and radionuclides (Ra and U). RO can remove about 87-98% of Ra from water and similar elimination can be achieved for alpha particles [4]. Using an RO to remove radionuclides, performance depends on factors such as pH, iron/manganese content, turbidity, and membrane type.  Radioactive particles will necessarily affect ground water, which is to become drinking water. PurePro delivers RO to remove particles with the size of about 0.0001 µ. The Environmental Protection Agency’s acceptable standard for radioactive contaminants is about 0.555 Bq l-1 in public drinking water supplies. When radioactive particles are ingested, the digestive system is affected [5]. Radioactive particles from Chernobyl and other sources such as ongoing local farming, manufacturing and more, are probably already in the ground water from which most drinking water is attained. The atomic diameters of uranium and radium are about 0.000350 × 10-6 m and 0.000430 × 10-6 m, respectively. Radioactive particles are larger than 0.0002 × 10-6 m. RO removes particles larger than 0.0001 × 10-6 m. RO is a deployable *Corresponding Author: Tel: 009647823004353; Email: basimnajaf@yahoo.com       Basim A. Almayahi et al.                                                                                                                  Radionuclides and Heavy Elements in Water Deposits    Iran J Med Phys, Vol. 16, No. 1, January 2019                                                           16 technology to effectively deal with radioactive contaminants. The process removes chlorine and nuclear elements like radioactive plutonium or strontium from drinking water. RO with activated carbon seems to be the most advanced water purification method developed so far. Nutritional supplements developed for the purpose of detoxifying heavy metals contain plant fibers and algae. EPA regulates radionuclides in water to protect public health [6]. Radionuclides at amounts greater than the drinking water standards cause health problems. The new rule revised the radionuclides regulation that had been in effect. The revisions set new monitoring requirements for community water system. This ensured customers receive water meeting maximum contaminant levels for radionuclides in water. EPA issued a standard for U, as required by the Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1986. The current standards are: combined radium of 0.185 Bq l-1, the gross alpha standard of about 0.555 Bq l-1, and a combined standard of 0.04 mSv.y-1 for beta emitters. RO system removes fallout contamination. The levels of these radioactive contaminants are below the maximum concentration level, but long-term ingestion may not be safe. Drinking unhealthy water affects children more than adults, which causes concern for the health of children drinking tap water [7].  Pollutants come from untreated sewage, factories, and fertilizers. The major source of metal pollution in rivers is the industrial effluents near rivers. The transport of sediment downstream due to the river velocity contributes to the deposition of heavy metals in below the surface [8].  In this study, we aimed to determine the rate of alpha particles emission and heavy elements in household filters used in different areas of Najaf Governorate, Iraq. We also compared our results with global findings to determine the level of environmental pollution resulting from alpha particles and heavy elements. RO is used to remove lead, mercury, fluoride, chlorine, and many other contaminants through various pre- and post-filters that make up a RO filter system.  Materials and Methods Twelve water filters were collected from houses in different regions of Najaf, Iraq. The filters were selected from houses where 900 liters per month of water was consumed. These samples were transferred to an environmental laboratory for conducting the necessary tests and analysis of the samples. Then, sediments were extracted from the filters. Sediments were placed in airtight polyethylene bags and detailed information such as sample name, area, and date were written on them. The samples were dried by oven for 1 h at a temperature of 120oC. The samples were weighed and then placed on α-detector sheets with an area of about 2 × 2 cm2. Then, it was put in vacuum-sealed, high-density polyethylene bags and clamped in position. An alpha particle, while not penetrating far, deposits considerable energy in a short-range distance. The samples were prepared for examining heavy metals through the extraction of sediments using the evaporation process. The samples were then manually ground by mortar for obtaining homogeneous samples. The studied samples were weighed by a sensitive balance.         Water deposit samples (powder) were placed in contact with the CR-39 detector (α-sensitive detector, PADC-TASTRACK, UK, C12H18O7). The CR-39 has the ability to record the tracks of alpha, proton, and fission fragments because it has carbon bonds that break when exposed to radiation. Nuclear track technology is a technique for determining radionuclides due to availability, accuracy, and not requiring complex electrical devices [9]. The CR-39 detectors and samples were placed together in a freezer at -20oC for 90-120 days to allow alpha particle tracks to accumulate on CR-39. The samples were then extracted from the detector. The CR-39 detectors were washed using distilled water and dried. Alpha particles were measured without any chemical treatments. CR-39 detectors were etched using NaOH solution as reported in former studies [10-13]. The detectors were etched for calculating the effects of alpha particles as displayed in Figure 1.     Figure 1. CR-39 with a NaOH solution  Alpha tracks were counted using a microscope (A. Kruss. Optronic, Germany) with MDCE-5C camera at 10 × magnification as shown in Figure 2.    Radionuclides and Heavy Elements in Water Deposits                                                                                                                  Basim A. Almayahi et al.  17                                                     Iran J Med Phys, Vol. 16, No. 1, January 2019    Figure 2. a. Optical microscope connected to the computer; b, c. Alpha particles track   The CR-39 efficiency in this study was calculated [14]. The alpha emission rate (Eα) was calculated [14]: ,)(%)( 2TcmmBqE bs                             (1) Where T is exposure time (s), Sdenotes the number of tracks of samples (Track.cm-2), and b shows background tracks in the detector (Track.cm-2).  About 100 ml of distilled water was added to the sediment samples (0.5 g) at 180oC for half an hour using VELP Scientifica, which offers a wide range of heating magnetic stirrers. Then, the mixture was heated until it diminished to about 10 ml, and afterwards, this solution was filtered for the separation of solid particles to prepare for the measurement of Cd and Pb using atomic absorption spectrophotometer. The heavy metals in water sediments were determined using a Flame Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer-6300 AA, Shimadzu, Japan.   Results Table 1 shows the concentrations of cadmium in the studied samples. The highest value of cadmium was found in Ghadeer water deposits (0.0224 ppm) and the lowest cadmium was in Alswag district water deposits (0.0022 ppm), while the global maximum allowable amount is 0.005 ppm. The concentrations of the lead element are presented in Table 1. This table shows that the highest value of lead was found in Almutanaby water deposits (1.5459 ppm) and the lowest value was observed in Aljameha water deposits (0.4705 ppm).  The emission rates were the lowest for alpha particles (the standard errors were very near to emission rate of alpha) in the sediments of Ghadeer district (0.0009±0.0002 mBq.cm-2) and the highest values were in the sediments of Khan Almkhdhar (0.0482±0.0093 mBq.cm-2) as displayed in Table 2. The standard error was calculated using formula: Standard error =STDEV√𝑛 , where STDEV denotes standard deviation and n shows the number of readings.  Table 1. Heavy metals concentration (ppm) in the samples  Sample Location Lead Cadmium  Askary 0.7393 0.0142 Mohandesen 0.6049 0.0112 Ansar 1.1426 0.0097 Alswag 0.9410 0.0022 Aljameha 0.4705 0.0149 Almelad 0.8738 0.0119 Alfurat 1.2098 0.0149 Aljazerah 0.6049 0.0075 Alhindeah 0.6049 0.0157 Ghadeer 0.8066 0.0224 Almutanaby 1.5459 0.0127 Khan Almkhdhar 1.4787 0.0171 Average 0.9186±0.1024 0.0129±0.0014 PTWI* 0.0250 0.0070 *Provisional tolerable weekly intake (PTWI)          Table 2. Information and the emission rates of alpha particles in the sediments of filters from Najaf city, Iraq Sample Location Tracks.cm-2d-1 Eα (mBq cm-2) ±SE of Mean Askary 0.426 0.0042 0.0004 Mohandesen 1.704 0.0168 0.0036 Ansar 0.169 0.0017 0.0001 Alswag 1.171 0.0115 0.0016 Aljameha 0.339 0.0033 0.0012 Almelad 0.185 0.0018 0.0002 Alfurat 0.195 0.0019 0.0005 Aljazerah 0.392 0.0039 0.0006 Alhindeah 1.504 0.0148 0.0005 Ghadeer 0.087 0.0009 0.0002 Almutanaby 0.610 0.0060 0.0001 Khan Almkhdhar 4.898 0.0482 0.0093 Average 0.973 0.0095 0.0015  Discussion The global maximum allowable amount of lead in drinking water is 0.05 ppm. Nature concentration of marine water shows that the concentrations of Cd and Pb were 0.11 ppm and 0.3 ppm, respectively [15]. Based on the result of this study, Levels of Pb and Cd in water from Najaf exceeded the World Health Organization (WHO) stipulated limits of Pb and Cd for drinking water [16]. The mean number of recorded alpha tracks per cm2 per day was 0.952, with the lowest and highest values of 0.087 and 4.898, respectively. The main sources of this waste are factory wastes, smelting of metals, burning of coal, car exhaust, and pesticides. In the present study, the average concentrations of dissolved Cd and Pb were not within the safe limits for each Iraqi specification (Cd=0.005 ppm and Pb=0.05 ppm) and the world standard limits.  There was some spatial variation in concentrations of the studied heavy metals among different sites, which may due to the distribution of elements that is affected by many important spatial factors such as human population, density along the river banks, hydrological conditions of the bed, discharges by local industries, and sewage discharges [17]. Levels of Pb and Cd in water exceeded the WHO stipulated limits of 0.010 for Pb and 0.003 for Cd. Gross-alpha activities of water sediments were lower than those reported by other studies [18, 19]. Thus, it does not affect the human body.  a    Basim A. Almayahi et al.                                                                                                                  Radionuclides and Heavy Elements in Water Deposits    Iran J Med Phys, Vol. 16, No. 1, January 2019                                                           18  Conclusion The variation in alpha radioactivity in the sediment-water suspension collected from Najaf households may depend on the transfer of radionuclides from air and soil to water. All heavy metals exceeded the recommended limit. Pb and Cd levels were as follows: Pb > Cd. The mean levels (ppm) of these heavy metals in the suspended sediment samples from Najaf households were 0.9186 and 0.0129, respectively. Generally, the levels of Pb and Cd in water exceeded the WHO stipulated limits of Pb and Cd. Overall, gross-alpha activity of water was low, and thus, it does not impact the human body. That is to say, water sediments in this study were free of environmental pollution of the alpha particles.  The present work is useful in determining the exposure and intake rates of alpha particles and heavy metals. RO filters can be employed for the removal of heavy metals from tap water. These filter systems feature more than one type of filter media.  Acknowledgment We wish to than the University of Kufa, Iraq, for their financial support.    References  1. Sauvé S, Desrosiers M. A review of what is an emerging contaminant. Chemistry Central Journal. 2014; 8(1):15. 2. Disease Control Priorities in Developing Countries. 2nd edition. Jamison DT, Breman JG, Measham AR, et al., editors. Washington (DC): The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development. The World Bank; New York: Oxford University Press. 2006. 3. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Best Available Technology (BAT). Small System Compliance Technology (SSCT). Radionuclides in Drinking Water. 2015. 4. Annanmaki M., Turtiainen T. Treatment Techniques for Removing Natural Radionuclides from Drinking Water. Final Report of the TENAWA project. Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority P.O. Box 14 FIN-00881 HELSINKI Finland. Oy Edita Ab, Helsinki. 2000. 5. Pure-Pro Drinking Water System. Pure-Pro Water Corporation (Headquarters). 14F-7, 232 Cheng Kung 1st Road, Kaohsiung, Taiwan. Available from: http://www.pure-pro.com/company_profile.htm. 6. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Radionuclides Rule: A Quick Reference Guide, EPA 816-F-01-003. 2001. 7. Mark Sircus. Natural Oncology - Anti Inflammatory Cancer Treatment. Lulu Press, Inc. 2015. 8. Wakida FT, Lara-Ruiz D, Temores-Pena J, Rodriguez-Ventura JG, Diaz C, Garcia-Flores E. Heavy metals in sediments of the Tecate River, Mexico. Environmental Geology. 2008 ;54(3):637-42. 9. Durrani S.A, Bull R.K, Solid State Nuclear Track Detection Principles, Method, and Applications. Pergamon Books, Ltd. 1987. 10. Almayahi B, Tajuddin, A, Jaafar M. In-Situ radon level measurement for a tropical country. Proceedings of International Conference on Chemical, Biological and Environment Sciences (ICCEBS' 2011) in Thailand. 2011; 415-7. 11. Almayahi BA, Tajuddin AA, Jaafar MS. 210Pb, 235U, 137Cs, 40K and 222Rn concentrations in soil samples after 2010 Thai and Malaysian floods. Adv Biomed Eng. 2012; 6:593-8. 12. Almayahi BA, Tajuddin AA, Jaafar M.S. Measurements of alpha emission rates in bones using CR-39 track detector. Proceedings of 2nd International Conference on Ecological, Environmental and Biological Sciences (EEBS'2012). Indonesia .2012. 13. Almayahi BA, Tajuddin AA., Jaafar M.S. Measurements of naturally occurring 210Pb concentration in animals’ bones of Northern Malaysian Peninsula. Proceedings of International Conference on Agriculture, Chemical and Environmental Sciences . 2012 : 189-91. 14. Almayahi BA, Tajuddin AA, Jaafar MS. Radiobiological long-term accumulation of environmental alpha radioactivity in extracted human teeth and animal bones in Malaysia. Journal of environmental radioactivity. 2014; 129:140-7. 15. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Strategic Plan for Homeland Security. Washington, D.C. EPA. 2002. 16. World Health Organization (WHO). Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality: Recommendations. Geneva, Switzerland. 2011. 17. Draskovic RJ, Draskovic RS. Biogeochemical investigations of some continental water systems in Yugoslavia by instrumental activation analysis. Journal of Radioanalytical Chemistry. 1980;58(1-2):275-80. 18. Almayahi BA. Determination of Radionuclide Concentration in Human Teeth in Najaf Governorate, Iraq. Iranian Journal of Medical Physics. 2017;14(4):173-82. 19. Almayahi B. Quantification of Alpha Particle Emission in Human Blood Samples in the City of Najaf, Iraq. Journal of Environmental Indicators. 2015; 9: 26.      

Radionuclides and heavy elements in a water deposits of Reverse Osmosis system filters in Iraqi houses

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Radionuclides and heavy elements in a water deposits of Reverse Osmosis system filters in Iraqi houses

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