Nelson, Gary S.

English

Texas A&M University

LoSS Control
II~~
Data Sheet
• Design for Productivity
• Safety Engineering
• Risk Management
• Occupational Health
• Product Safety
• Work Methods
'4-11- 84
L-2120
tom Ne.VJ
HOME FIRE DETECTORS
SAVE LIVES
Imagine that the time is 3 o'clock tomorrow morning. You
and your family are fast asleep. A flame flickers in the
living room. Minutes pass and the fire grows. Smoke
fills your home. At 3:20 you are awakened by the sound
of a child coughing. You smell smoke and suddenly you
are fearfully wide awake with the realization that the
house is on fire! You shout, "The house is on fire!" and
frantically wake your wife or husband. With the intent
of waking the rest of your family you rush to open your
bedroom door,but the hallway is filled with flame and you
are barely able to close the door again.
What will you do now? What are other members of your
family doing, each in a different room? Are they awake?
Have they escaped or are they lying unconscious from
lethal smoke and fumes? Even if your family has planned
and practiced a fire escape plan, it may even now be too
late to use it!
How does this story end? We'll leave that up to you.
But keep in mind that this is just how thousands of
family members die each year. Whatever the outcome
imagined, this story could have been told differently had
an early-warning fire detector sounded its alarm at 3:05
a.m.
Your home is not exempt from fire. Fire destroys or
damages more than 1,800 homes in the United States every
day. It can happen to you.
Fire kills over 12,000 persons each year in the United
States (about 350 in Texas). The majority of fires are,
caused by smoking materials, heaters, electrical devices
and wiring, and cooking stoves and appliances. Early
warning smoke detectors provide inexpensive protection
for you and your family. You should install a fire
alarm system in your home to alert quickly occupants of
fire, day or night.
WHERE AND WHEN DO FIRES START?
The study also showed that about an equal number of fires
started during the day and at night. However, the vast
majority of fires which resulted in multiple deaths (three
or more persons) occurred during nighttime hours when
people are generally asleep and unaware that a fire has
started--until it is too late.
FIRE STAGES
The most important characteristic of a fire detection and
alarm system is that it will give early warning of a fire
danger so occupants can get out of the house safely and
provide opportunity for them to extin~uish the fire at
an early stage.
Here are facts ,you should know about the stages in fire
development:
1. Initial (incipient) stage--invisible particles of
combustion are produced without significant amounts
of heat, flame or smoke.
2. Second stage--mainly smoke produced. Little heat or
flame is present and fire can be relatively easily
extinguished, if detected.
3. Third stage--flames become clearly visible, heat
increases, fire grows rapidly, and extinguishing
becomes difficult.
The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) reports
that most people die in home fi-res from the lack of oxygen,
from noxious gases, and from smoke, often before they
wake up, and long before they are reached by flames (see
Figure 1). Many synthetic materials used in carpeting
and home furnishings give off deadly gases when they
begin to smolder. For these reasons, the NFPA recommends
the use of at least one smoke detector located in the
hallway outside bedroom areas.
A recent study of 400 residential fires involving 1,301
fatalities suggests that most fires start in living rooms
and kitchens followed by bedrooms, bathrooms, and then
garages and outside locations.
Smoke and tOllic gas
inhalatIon
Burn.
Other related cau...
741
~
~
* Prepared by Gary S. Nelson, Extension Agricultural
Engineer--Safety, The Texa~-A&M University System.
o 25
Percent
75 100
Figure 1. Leading causes of fire fatalities (U.S.)
Texas Agricultural Extension Service, The Texas A&M University System, Zerle L. Carpenter, Director, College Station, Texas
Fire officials estimate that 50% of life loss due to
residence fires could be saved by installing early warn-
ing fire detection devices.
SMOKE DETECTORS
Smoke detectors are designed to sense fumes and smoke
produced in the early stages of a fire. Smoke detectors
for home use commonly contain a smoke sensing chamber,
an alarm sounding mechanism, and electrical circuits
housed in a single small unit. These units are made to
hang from the ceiling or wall. Power is supplied from
house current or batteries.
Usually, smoke detectors for residential use are of two
types: ionization or photoelectric. Ionization units
react when smoke interferes with the flow of electric
current through an ionized sensing chamber (Figure 2).
Photoelectric units react when smoke interferes with or
scatters a beam of light sealed inside a sensing chamber
(Figure 3).
Both types of detectors work on the principle of sensing
the presence of smoke. However, the photoelectric det-
ector is best at sensing the larger smoke particles in the
visible range. If a fire starts as a slow smoldering
fire (upholstery) with smoke but without any flame, a
good photoelectric unit would be superior to a good'
ionization unit in terms of detection time. In fact, the
photoelectric detector may ignore fires involving flame
with little visible smoke.
Conversely, a good ionization detector unit will respond
faster to flaming fires or to invisible gaseous products
of combustion such as carbon monoxide.
Some authorities suggest the minimum detection system
would consist of both types of smoke detectors--one plug
'in photoelectric and one battery operated ionization unit.
The differing sensitivities of the two types supplement
each other nicely, each providing backup protection for
the other as well as an additional alarm. Where only one
unit is used (just outside sleeping areas) an ionization
unit is recommended.
HEAT DETECTORS
/
ALARM
DETECTOR
CIRCUIT
Heat detectors should not be used alone as occupant fire
warning devices, especially in sleeping areas, as fatal-
ities may result from smoke and other combustion products
before heat levels are reached which activate the detector.
Heat detectors are usually activated when surrounding
heat levels reach 135 degrees F or more. For this reason,
they must be placed very near potential fire hazards and
usually a fire must be in full flame before they will
work. This type detector should be considered only for
areas such as kitchens, furnace rooms, and shops, where
normal heat sources might make smoke detectors impractical.
BATTERY OR PLUG-IN TYPE?
Figure 2. Ionization smoke detector. Combustion
particles reduce electrical flow and
trigger alarm.
I I
~~ ~
I \ f\ II ~ i\~ ~REFLECTED
LIGHT
LIGHT PHOTO CELL
SOURCE
ALARM
Figure 3. Pholoelectric smoke detector. Smoke par-
ticles deflect light beam and trigger alarm.
Ionization type. smoke detectors operate on either house
current or batteries. The photoelectric detector always
runs on house current since it requires more power. House
current detectors are usually less expensive to buy and
maintain but must be installed near an (unswitched)
electrical outlet. House current detectors operate as
long as they receive electricity. The chances are un-
likely that electricity in a home will be disrupted in
a fire,as power fails in less than 10 percent of all
home fires.
Battery powered detectors are easily installed in areas
without an electric outlet or where a visible cord is
undesirable. Being independent of house current, they
operate in case of power outage. Batteries weaken with
age, however, and must be checked and replaced at least
once each year to assure reliability (photoelectric
lamp bulbs must also be checked and replaced periodically).
BUYING TIPS
* Don't be frightened into a quick purchase. Get at
least two or three price estimates from different
sources.
* Buy only alarms which carry labels showing they have
passed the tests to be approved by UL (Underwriter's
Laboratories), FM (Factory Mutual System), ICBO
(International Conference of Building Officials) or
other testing organizations.
* Be sure the units you buy come with an instruction
booklet covering installation, operation, testing, and
maintenance.
* Buy only those units for which replacement batteries
or bulbs are readily available.
* Purchase only from a reputable firm and understand the
guarentee or warranty for the unit you select.
* Test all units immediately after installation. If
installed by a contractor, have them test the units
in your presence.
LOCATION AND MOUNTING OF UNITS
The number and proper location of fire detectors is very
important if they are to give adequate protection, and this
depends largely upon the type of house in which you live.
* Heat detectors are also recomnended for attics, garages,
barns, shops, and other outbuildings where higher than
normal temperatures are encountered and where airborne
dust might be present that could set off a smoke de-
tector.
The "basic" minimal detection system should consist of
one ionization smoke detector outside each sleeping area
and one additional unit (photoelectric or ionization) on
each non-sleeping living level (Figures 4 and 5).
If you live in a single story house with all bedrooms
leading to a common living area, mount one ionization
smoke detector on the ceiling or wall between the bed-
rooms and living rooms (Figure 4).
LIVING ROOM KITCHEN
DINING
ROOM
e IONIZATION ® PHOTOELECTRIC
Figure 5. In homes with more than one bedroom area, a
smoke detector should be used to protect each
separate sleeping area.
e'ONIZATlON ® PHOTOELECTRIC
e IONIZATION
Figure 4. In a one floor plan with only one sleeping
area, the smoke detector should be placed
between the sleeping area and the rest of
the house.
If your bedrooms are at opposite ends of the house or on
more than one floor, place ionization smoke detectors
outside each of these sleeping areas (Figure 5).
®
BEDROOM
®
LIVING ROOM
BEDROOM
Consideration might also be given to installing additional
detectors for maximum protection (Figures 5) as follows:
* Install a photoelectric detector in each bedroom
occupied by a smoker.
* Install ionization or photoelectric units in each room
or major section of a house as appropriate for the
room activity and contents.
* In the kitchen area it is better to install a heat
detector rather than a smoke detector. Smoke and other
combustion particles from ordinary cooking may set off
the alarm of a smoke detector if the unit is placed too
close to the stove.
Figure 6. Placement of additional detectors for maximum
warning protection.
Mount detectors on ceilings, preferably in the center of
the space to be protected. In narrow hallways, mount
detectors no closer than 12 inches from the wall (Figure
7a). If a detector must be wall mounted, it should be
mounted no closer than 6 inches and no farther than 12
inches from the ceiling. This is to avoid the dead air
space as illustrated in Figure 7b. Locations where
strong drafts may occur such as near air registers and
open doors and windows, should also be avoided.
It should be noted that authorities differ as to whether
bedroom doors should be open or closed while occupants
are sleeping. The closed-door theory maintains that
the door could keep fire out of a bedroom long enough to
allow escape through a window emergency route. The open
door theory contends that it is more difficult to hear
the alarm through a closed door and if a fire starts
within a bedroom, the central fire detector located out-
side in the hall will not detect the fire quickly enough
with doors closed. An alternative might be to install
separate detectors in bedrooms if you prefer to keep
doors closed while sleeping. Also, if a family member
has hearing difficulties or insists on smoking in bed,
install a detector directly over the bed.
CEILING
* Minimize fire hazards. Keep stoves and furnace rooms
clean. Remove trash and garbage daily. Keep heating
and electrical equipment properly maintained. Use
properly-sized wiring and fuses. Never smoke in bed.
Do not leave children at home alone. Exercise caution
when using flammable liquids. Never store or use
gasoline inside the house.
* Develop and practice an escape plan. There is little
time between detection of a fire and the time it
becomes deadly--this interval may be as little as one
or two minutes. Planning and practicing for fire
conditions with emphasis on rapid exit from the home
is important. Drills should be held at least every
six months so that all family members will know exactly
what to do. Everyone should have two escape routes--one
through doors and hallways or stairs; the other through
windows. Everyone should know not to open bedroom doors
if the door is hot, indicating fire on the other side.
Establish a meeting place outside and away from the
house so family members can be quickly located.
Prudent owners should check the operation of their
detectors at least once a month. Some models provide a
test button or lever; others require that smoke from a
cigarette or snuffed candle be blown into the detector.
Plug-in units should be tested after lightning storms to
make sure that a lightning-caused voltage surge has not
damaged the detector.
TESTING AND MAINTENANCE
YOUR JOB IS NOT DONE
The National Fire Protection Association suggests that
"reasonable home fire safety" can be achieved by follow-
ing this three point program:
Test each unit after installation as suggested by the
manufacturer. Familiarize all family members with alarm
sound. Periodically check batteries and light bulb; if
either is defective, replace. Always keep a spare
replacement light bulb on hand for photoelectric units.
Yearly vacuuming of ionization detectors is a recommended
practice; photoelectric detectors should also be vacuumed
and filters cleaned annually. Also check for and remove
insects that have crawled into detector housings,as their
presence can cause false alarms.
AVOID
DEAD AIR
SPACE
ACCEPTABLE{
OPTIONAL
LOCATION
Mount ceiling detector units at least 12
inches from walls.
PREFERRED
LOCATION
Figure 7a.
* Provide a fire warning system. The systems described
above can warn occupants of a fire and give them a
chance to escape--and live.
Figure 7b. Mount wall detector units between 6 inches
and 12 inches from ceiling.
Educational programs conducted by the Texas Agricultural Extension Service serve people of all ages regardless of socioeco-
nomic level, race, color, sex, religion, handicap or national origin.
Cooperative Extension Work in Agriculture and Home Economics, The Texas A&M University System and the United States Department
of Agriculture cooperating. Distributed in furtherance of the Acts of Congress of May 8, 1914, as amended, and June 30, 1914.
10M--7-84, Reprint SAF


Home Fire Detectors Save Lives.

Texas A&amp;M Repository

LoSS ControlII~~Data Sheet• Design for Productivity• Safety Engineering• Risk Management• Occupational Health• Product Safety• Work Methods'4-11- 84L-2120tom Ne.VJHOME FIRE DETECTORSSAVE LIVESImagine that the time is 3 o'clock tomorrow morning. Youand your family are fast asleep. A flame flickers in theliving room. Minutes pass and the fire grows. Smokefills your home. At 3:20 you are awakened by the soundof a child coughing. You smell smoke and suddenly youare fearfully wide awake with the realization that thehouse is on fire! You shout, "The house is on fire!" andfrantically wake your wife or husband. With the intentof waking the rest of your family you rush to open yourbedroom door,but the hallway is filled with flame and youare barely able to close the door again.What will you do now? What are other members of yourfamily doing, each in a different room? Are they awake?Have they escaped or are they lying unconscious fromlethal smoke and fumes? Even if your family has plannedand practiced a fire escape plan, it may even now be toolate to use it!How does this story end? We'll leave that up to you.But keep in mind that this is just how thousands offamily members die each year. Whatever the outcomeimagined, this story could have been told differently hadan early-warning fire detector sounded its alarm at 3:05a.m.Your home is not exempt from fire. Fire destroys ordamages more than 1,800 homes in the United States everyday. It can happen to you.Fire kills over 12,000 persons each year in the UnitedStates (about 350 in Texas). The majority of fires are,caused by smoking materials, heaters, electrical devicesand wiring, and cooking stoves and appliances. Earlywarning smoke detectors provide inexpensive protectionfor you and your family. You should install a firealarm system in your home to alert quickly occupants offire, day or night.WHERE AND WHEN DO FIRES START?The study also showed that about an equal number of firesstarted during the day and at night. However, the vastmajority of fires which resulted in multiple deaths (threeor more persons) occurred during nighttime hours whenpeople are generally asleep and unaware that a fire hasstarted--until it is too late.FIRE STAGESThe most important characteristic of a fire detection andalarm system is that it will give early warning of a firedanger so occupants can get out of the house safely andprovide opportunity for them to extin~uish the fire atan early stage.Here are facts ,you should know about the stages in firedevelopment:1. Initial (incipient) stage--invisible particles ofcombustion are produced without significant amountsof heat, flame or smoke.2. Second stage--mainly smoke produced. Little heat orflame is present and fire can be relatively easilyextinguished, if detected.3. Third stage--flames become clearly visible, heatincreases, fire grows rapidly, and extinguishingbecomes difficult.The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) reportsthat most people die in home fi-res from the lack of oxygen,from noxious gases, and from smoke, often before theywake up, and long before they are reached by flames (seeFigure 1). Many synthetic materials used in carpetingand home furnishings give off deadly gases when theybegin to smolder. For these reasons, the NFPA recommendsthe use of at least one smoke detector located in thehallway outside bedroom areas.A recent study of 400 residential fires involving 1,301fatalities suggests that most fires start in living roomsand kitchens followed by bedrooms, bathrooms, and thengarages and outside locations.Smoke and tOllic gasinhalatIonBurn.Other related cau...741~~* Prepared by Gary S. Nelson, Extension AgriculturalEngineer--Safety, The Texa~-A&M University System.o 25Percent75 100Figure 1. Leading causes of fire fatalities (U.S.)Texas Agricultural Extension Service, The Texas A&M University System, Zerle L. Carpenter, Director, College Station, TexasFire officials estimate that 50% of life loss due toresidence fires could be saved by installing early warn-ing fire detection devices.SMOKE DETECTORSSmoke detectors are designed to sense fumes and smokeproduced in the early stages of a fire. Smoke detectorsfor home use commonly contain a smoke sensing chamber,an alarm sounding mechanism, and electrical circuitshoused in a single small unit. These units are made tohang from the ceiling or wall. Power is supplied fromhouse current or batteries.Usually, smoke detectors for residential use are of twotypes: ionization or photoelectric. Ionization unitsreact when smoke interferes with the flow of electriccurrent through an ionized sensing chamber (Figure 2).Photoelectric units react when smoke interferes with orscatters a beam of light sealed inside a sensing chamber(Figure 3).Both types of detectors work on the principle of sensingthe presence of smoke. However, the photoelectric det-ector is best at sensing the larger smoke particles in thevisible range. If a fire starts as a slow smolderingfire (upholstery) with smoke but without any flame, agood photoelectric unit would be superior to a good'ionization unit in terms of detection time. In fact, thephotoelectric detector may ignore fires involving flamewith little visible smoke.Conversely, a good ionization detector unit will respondfaster to flaming fires or to invisible gaseous productsof combustion such as carbon monoxide.Some authorities suggest the minimum detection systemwould consist of both types of smoke detectors--one plug'in photoelectric and one battery operated ionization unit.The differing sensitivities of the two types supplementeach other nicely, each providing backup protection forthe other as well as an additional alarm. Where only oneunit is used (just outside sleeping areas) an ionizationunit is recommended.HEAT DETECTORS/ALARMDETECTORCIRCUITHeat detectors should not be used alone as occupant firewarning devices, especially in sleeping areas, as fatal-ities may result from smoke and other combustion productsbefore heat levels are reached which activate the detector.Heat detectors are usually activated when surroundingheat levels reach 135 degrees F or more. For this reason,they must be placed very near potential fire hazards andusually a fire must be in full flame before they willwork. This type detector should be considered only forareas such as kitchens, furnace rooms, and shops, wherenormal heat sources might make smoke detectors impractical.BATTERY OR PLUG-IN TYPE?Figure 2. Ionization smoke detector. Combustionparticles reduce electrical flow andtrigger alarm.I I~~ ~I \ f\ II ~ i\~ ~REFLECTEDLIGHTLIGHT PHOTO CELLSOURCEALARMFigure 3. Pholoelectric smoke detector. Smoke par-ticles deflect light beam and trigger alarm.Ionization type. smoke detectors operate on either housecurrent or batteries. The photoelectric detector alwaysruns on house current since it requires more power. Housecurrent detectors are usually less expensive to buy andmaintain but must be installed near an (unswitched)electrical outlet. House current detectors operate aslong as they receive electricity. The chances are un-likely that electricity in a home will be disrupted ina fire,as power fails in less than 10 percent of allhome fires.Battery powered detectors are easily installed in areaswithout an electric outlet or where a visible cord isundesirable. Being independent of house current, theyoperate in case of power outage. Batteries weaken withage, however, and must be checked and replaced at leastonce each year to assure reliability (photoelectriclamp bulbs must also be checked and replaced periodically).BUYING TIPS* Don't be frightened into a quick purchase. Get atleast two or three price estimates from differentsources.* Buy only alarms which carry labels showing they havepassed the tests to be approved by UL (Underwriter'sLaboratories), FM (Factory Mutual System), ICBO(International Conference of Building Officials) orother testing organizations.* Be sure the units you buy come with an instructionbooklet covering installation, operation, testing, andmaintenance.* Buy only those units for which replacement batteriesor bulbs are readily available.* Purchase only from a reputable firm and understand theguarentee or warranty for the unit you select.* Test all units immediately after installation. Ifinstalled by a contractor, have them test the unitsin your presence.LOCATION AND MOUNTING OF UNITSThe number and proper location of fire detectors is veryimportant if they are to give adequate protection, and thisdepends largely upon the type of house in which you live.* Heat detectors are also recomnended for attics, garages,barns, shops, and other outbuildings where higher thannormal temperatures are encountered and where airbornedust might be present that could set off a smoke de-tector.The "basic" minimal detection system should consist ofone ionization smoke detector outside each sleeping areaand one additional unit (photoelectric or ionization) oneach non-sleeping living level (Figures 4 and 5).If you live in a single story house with all bedroomsleading to a common living area, mount one ionizationsmoke detector on the ceiling or wall between the bed-rooms and living rooms (Figure 4).LIVING ROOM KITCHENDININGROOMe IONIZATION ® PHOTOELECTRICFigure 5. In homes with more than one bedroom area, asmoke detector should be used to protect eachseparate sleeping area.e'ONIZATlON ® PHOTOELECTRICe IONIZATIONFigure 4. In a one floor plan with only one sleepingarea, the smoke detector should be placedbetween the sleeping area and the rest ofthe house.If your bedrooms are at opposite ends of the house or onmore than one floor, place ionization smoke detectorsoutside each of these sleeping areas (Figure 5).®BEDROOM®LIVING ROOMBEDROOMConsideration might also be given to installing additionaldetectors for maximum protection (Figures 5) as follows:* Install a photoelectric detector in each bedroomoccupied by a smoker.* Install ionization or photoelectric units in each roomor major section of a house as appropriate for theroom activity and contents.* In the kitchen area it is better to install a heatdetector rather than a smoke detector. Smoke and othercombustion particles from ordinary cooking may set offthe alarm of a smoke detector if the unit is placed tooclose to the stove.Figure 6. Placement of additional detectors for maximumwarning protection.Mount detectors on ceilings, preferably in the center ofthe space to be protected. In narrow hallways, mountdetectors no closer than 12 inches from the wall (Figure7a). If a detector must be wall mounted, it should bemounted no closer than 6 inches and no farther than 12inches from the ceiling. This is to avoid the dead airspace as illustrated in Figure 7b. Locations wherestrong drafts may occur such as near air registers andopen doors and windows, should also be avoided.It should be noted that authorities differ as to whetherbedroom doors should be open or closed while occupantsare sleeping. The closed-door theory maintains thatthe door could keep fire out of a bedroom long enough toallow escape through a window emergency route. The opendoor theory contends that it is more difficult to hearthe alarm through a closed door and if a fire startswithin a bedroom, the central fire detector located out-side in the hall will not detect the fire quickly enoughwith doors closed. An alternative might be to installseparate detectors in bedrooms if you prefer to keepdoors closed while sleeping. Also, if a family memberhas hearing difficulties or insists on smoking in bed,install a detector directly over the bed.CEILING* Minimize fire hazards. Keep stoves and furnace roomsclean. Remove trash and garbage daily. Keep heatingand electrical equipment properly maintained. Useproperly-sized wiring and fuses. Never smoke in bed.Do not leave children at home alone. Exercise cautionwhen using flammable liquids. Never store or usegasoline inside the house.* Develop and practice an escape plan. There is littletime between detection of a fire and the time itbecomes deadly--this interval may be as little as oneor two minutes. Planning and practicing for fireconditions with emphasis on rapid exit from the homeis important. Drills should be held at least everysix months so that all family members will know exactlywhat to do. Everyone should have two escape routes--onethrough doors and hallways or stairs; the other throughwindows. Everyone should know not to open bedroom doorsif the door is hot, indicating fire on the other side.Establish a meeting place outside and away from thehouse so family members can be quickly located.Prudent owners should check the operation of theirdetectors at least once a month. Some models provide atest button or lever; others require that smoke from acigarette or snuffed candle be blown into the detector.Plug-in units should be tested after lightning storms tomake sure that a lightning-caused voltage surge has notdamaged the detector.TESTING AND MAINTENANCEYOUR JOB IS NOT DONEThe National Fire Protection Association suggests that"reasonable home fire safety" can be achieved by follow-ing this three point program:Test each unit after installation as suggested by themanufacturer. Familiarize all family members with alarmsound. Periodically check batteries and light bulb; ifeither is defective, replace. Always keep a sparereplacement light bulb on hand for photoelectric units.Yearly vacuuming of ionization detectors is a recommendedpractice; photoelectric detectors should also be vacuumedand filters cleaned annually. Also check for and removeinsects that have crawled into detector housings,as theirpresence can cause false alarms.AVOIDDEAD AIRSPACEACCEPTABLE{OPTIONALLOCATIONMount ceiling detector units at least 12inches from walls.PREFERREDLOCATIONFigure 7a.* Provide a fire warning system. The systems describedabove can warn occupants of a fire and give them achance to escape--and live.Figure 7b. Mount wall detector units between 6 inchesand 12 inches from ceiling.Educational programs conducted by the Texas Agricultural Extension Service serve people of all ages regardless of socioeco-nomic level, race, color, sex, religion, handicap or national origin.Cooperative Extension Work in Agriculture and Home Economics, The Texas A&M University System and the United States Departmentof Agriculture cooperating. Distributed in furtherance of the Acts of Congress of May 8, 1914, as amended, and June 30, 1914.10M--7-84, Reprint SAF

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Home Fire Detectors Save Lives.

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Home Fire Detectors Save Lives.

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Texas A&M University

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