Detailed courtship patterns have been described for few species of Lepidoptera. Most of the descriptive work in the literature is fragmentary or lacking in experimental or statistical analysis. Brower, Brower, and Cranston (1965) working on wild populations of the queen butterfly Danaus gilippus berenice have statistically analysed the probability of each movement in the sequence and have given a reliable and detailed account of mating in this species. Tinbergen (1958) by the presentation of models of varying size and colouration, and examining the affect of removal of structures suspected to be important in courtship has produced a good experimental account of mating in Satyrus semele the grayling butterfly. Because of the greater difficulties of observing complete mating sequences of nocturnal insects in the wild, most moth studies have been carried out with small caged populations. Again detailed expermental work is rare. The studies of Shorey (1964) on the cabbage looper Trichoplusia ni and Birch (1970) on the angleshades moth Phlogophora meticulosa possess good experimental detail suggesting that chemical cues are much more important in the courtship of moths than in butterflies. Development of more definitive techniques has allowed the investigation of insect courtship to move from subjective descriptions of the movement sequence to precise studies of the visual, tactile and chemical cues. In particular the availability of gas chromatography and mass spectrometry techniques capable of detecting the very small amounts of material produced by insects, has revolutionised the study of the chemicals, or pheromones, that are used in intra- specific communication.[FROM INTRODUCTION

Clearwater, John Russell

English

Massey Research Online

Copyright is owned by the Author of the thesis.  Permission is given for a copy to be downloaded by an individual for the purpose of research and private study only.  The thesis may not be reproduced elsewhere without the permission of the Author.  The Role of the Male-produced Pheromone in the Reproduction Behaviour of the Southern Annywonn Pseudaletia separata (Wlk.) A thesis presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Zoology at Massey University. John Russell Clearwater 1971 Acknowledgements I wish to acknowledge the invaluable assistance of many members of the staff of Massey University and of the D. S.I. R. l\'ly supervisors Mr L. Gurr and Dr. R. Milnes have freely given me their time and guidance. The encouragement of Dr. D. Penny led me to investigate highly rewarding areas of biochemistry. Dr. G. Russell has allowed me generous access to his gas chromatog raph, and Dr. Hodges has produced the mass spectrum of benzaldehyde • Assistance with modem dye techniques and the use of the Nomarski microscope was given me by Mr. v. Sarafis. Dr. J. Skipworth and Mr R. l eitch have given me extensive assistance with photographic methods. My thanks go also to Mr M. Mannering Head Technician for his ready a s sistance with the supply of materials, and to 11\Y typist Miss s. Street for her accurate work. Table or contents. Acknowledgeme n t s . Table of Contents . List of Figures. Introduction A. Ethology The r\,a ting Se quence The Development of Flight and Sexua l l\,aturity The Sensory ~odalities Involve d in the Location of r,1a ting artners The Bio l ogic al Function of henzaldehyde B . Morphology The tructu rc und Function of t he !lair e ncil .. II 111 V 1 6 13 19 26 34 The ~o r pho logy of the Ventral Anterior 44 Abdome nal segments Associated wi th the Hair iencils. The n.o r .!Jho logy and :\.icrostructurc of Stobbes Gland 51 The Innervation of the Ab domen and the 61 Hair Pencils The Posterior Abdom .nal il rush 6--f4 C, Physiology The Chemical Identification of a Pheromone from _ 72 Males of Pseudalctia sepa rata The Physiological Cycle of Gland Development and Pheromone P roduction D. Comparitive Biology Comparitive Biochemistry and l\1orphology of the i\ ale Pheromone System in the Noctuidae 83 1.QO I E. Techniques. The Maintenance of the Culture Detennination of Mating Frequencies by Us e of Fluorescent Dyes F , Summacy G, Bi.liography 118 121 126 12 9 List of Figures . 1/ '2/ 3/ 4/ 5/ 6/ 7/ 3/ 9/ 10/ 11/ 12/ 13/ 14/ 15/ 16/ 17/ 18/ Tl1e r:atin<:!; App ro a ch rhe Circuit Dia~ r am of t he Vi~rat ion rensor The Flig t ,,c tivi t y o f the Imav,o nie , a ti n,~ 1 re qucncy witlt " e spe cL to Ti me De, ,onstration of ~, i '?;na ls \dequate to Ind .cc a ting Attempts by the "ale The Affect o f Ilenzalde hydc on the Activity of t i e Female The !lair Pencil .:, Ca l es The lnse rt ion 1 L1te The Ce ls v verlyi n~ t :1c Inse rtion 1 late Tl1c r usclc .;hcet of Lhe lnse r t ion 1 late The Inflation of the Cuticle l•olds E11veloping t ile 1air , encil Lever The Sexual Bi morµhism of Abdomcnal Sternite II The Innervation o f the Hai r 11encil . The Ven tra l Abdomena l f\.usculative of the 1 la le Giant and Normal Cells of the Stobbes Gland The Spa tial Arrangement of the Gland Cells Around the Hair Scale Duct The Cytoplasmic RNA in Cells 0 . 5 Days Old The Nucle a r DNA in Cells 1. 5 Days Old 9 15 17 17 23 30 36 37 39 39 41 45 47 49 53 54 56 56 19/ 20/ 21/ 22/ 2]/ 24/ 25/ The Internal Structure of a Giant Cell Cyt0µlasmic vesicles The .eoste rier AlJdomenal Drush The ~- ternite nearing the ?os tcrior ; bdomenal ::; rush Longitudin3l Section of the posterior \bdor:cna 1 Brush The Identification of t he r ale J11leromone with .. ; . L. C. rriethods The Identification of the i, ale d1eromone with , a'-.s :Jpe ct. ['O metry 57 58 65 66 69 75 78 26/ The Production of Cuticle , iuinones 81 27/ The ~;ug~ested Derivation of thr. Pheromone from 81 Cinn amic . \Cid 28/ 'f~te !Jse of an ,cetocar:rine '- rruash to r)eterrrinc the 85 ,~ucleus 1'-iumber 29/ The Three Phases of the secretory Cycle of .... tobbes 88 Gland JO/ The ~ize Dis tributions of t~e 1:x >e rimental JL::rnd 89 Population 31/ The Bevelcpment of the Pheron-ione in the Hair Pencil 91 32/ 33/ 34/ 35/ J6/ The Uccurence of the Giant Cells Si mp ler Fo s of Scale Tracts The 1 herorrone eleasors of ~lanchra alcyone and Eran a graminosa The Abdomenal Brush of lusia chalcites The Chemistry of the l\1ale Pheromones of the Melanchrinae . 91 . 104· 105 107 _ 109 37/ The Relative Pectination of the Antennae J8/ The Antennae of Two Noctuid s pecies 39/ The Incipient Genital Aperture s of the i·upae 112 113 120 Introduction Detailed courtship patterns have been described for few species of Lepidoptera. Most of the descriptive work in the literature is fragmentary or lacking in experimental or statistical analysis. Brower, Brower, and Cranston (1965) working on wild populations of the queen butterfly Danaus gilippus berenice have statistically analysed the probability of each movement in the sequence and have given a reliable and detailed account of mating in this species . Tinbergen (1958) by the presentation of models of varying size and colouration, and examining the affect of removal of structures suspected to be important in courtship has produced a good experimental account of mating in Satyrus semele the grayling butterfly . Because of the greater difficulties of observing complete mating sequences of nocturnal insects in the wild, most moth studies have been carried out with small caged populations. Again detailed expennental work is rare. The studies of Shorey (1964) on the cabbage looper Trichoplusia .u!, and Birch (1970) on the angleshades moth Phlogophora meticulosa possess good experimental detail suggesting that chemical cues are much more important in the courtship of moths than in butterflies . 1 Development of more definitive techniques has allowed the investigation of insect courtship to move from subjective descriptions of the movement sequence to precise studies of the visual, tactile and chemical cues. In particular the availability of gas chromatography and mass spectrometry techniques capable of detecting the very small amounts of material produced by insects, has revolutionised the study of the chemicals, or pheromones, that are used in intra-specific communication. Pheromones are very widespread amongst the insect orders, and have a variety of functions in addition to sexual attraction. Many families of the Lepidoptera have had pheromones implicated in courtship eg. the Bombycidae Butenandt (1963), the Lymantriidae Jacobsen, Beroza and Jones (1960) the Noctuidae Gaston Fukuto and Shorey (1966) 2 and several others. Female cockroachs produce volatile substances wnich attract males and induce typical precopulatory behaviour, Barth (1961). Coppel, Cassida and Dauterman (1960) have shown the presence of a potent attractant in virgin females of the sawfly Diprion similis (Hymenoptera). Males of Musca domestica, the cormnon housefly are attracted to the female by a pheromone Rogoff (1964). These examples are a few selected from the irrmense literature on this subject. Other functions of pheromones are eliciting alarm reactions in bees and ants, trail following in ants and depression of ovary development in worker bees Regnier and Law (1968). 3 The Noctuidae have attracted considerable attention largely because they are a widespread group of considerable economic importance . Gaston, Shorey and their co-workers have carried out an intensive study of the male attracting pheromone produced by fe males of Trichoplusia ni. They have discus sed the environmental control of mating Shorey (1966), the bioassay of the pheromone Gaston and Shorey ( 1964), pheromone isolation techniques Gaston Fukuto and Shorey (1966) circadian rhythm of pheromone responsiveness Shorey and Gaston ( 1964) quantitative aspects of the produc t ion and release of the pheromone with respect to age and mating history Shorey and Gaston ( 1965) Shorey, McFarland and Gaston ( 1968) and described the morphology of the female gland Jefferson, Shorey and Gaston ( 1965) Miller, Jefferson and Thomson ( 19 67). £\lany other much less detailed studies of the female pheromone of different noctuid species exist . Very much less is known about the pheromones produced by the males of this family . Because of the difficulty of detecting an overt behavioural response from the female when stimulated by the pheromone of a conspecific male, the function of these pheromones is not at all clear. On the basis of unsophisticated preliminary experiments Shorey (1964) concluded that none of the observed female responses were invoked by any pheroroone from the extemal tufts of brown hair on the males abdomen in I.• !!!,. Electrophysiological evidence from Grant ( 1970) 4 demonstrated that the female does detect substances from these hair tufts , though no indication of function has yet been given . In other Lepidopteran families, the function of the male pheromone is clear. N - undecanal the male pheromone of Galleria mellonella is an attractant stimulating the female to move towards the displaying male Roller, C Bieman, Bjerke, Norgard and M Shan ( 1968) . In contrast the pyrolizinone of Danaus gilippus berenice is an arrestant , arresting the flight of the female and inhibiting her from flying away from the male once she has been induced to alight Brower, Brower and Cranston ( 1965) Pliske and Eisner { 1969) . Structurally, the complex organs producing the 1nale pheromone in the Noctuidae are diverse, including the hair pencils of Persectania aversa, the wing glands of Erana graminosa, the giant posterior brush of Plusia chalcites and the tibial hairs of Dasypodia selenophora o The only common feature is that all appear to have evolved from modified scales and the surrounding cells . This great variation in structure and location would seem to indicate that pheromone producing structures have evoived indepenantly many times in response to a powerful! selection pressure . The first accurate description of the noctuid hair pencil was the work of Stobbe (1912) . This worker described the hair scales, everting structures, and the hair pouch . His assertion that a gland consisting of a small number of very large cells is the major secretory structure has supplanted the theory of Eltringham (1925) that scales in the bottom of the hair pencil pouch produce the pheromone. This thesis is a detailed examination of the mating sequence of the noctuid Pseudaletia separata (Wlk . ) with particular reference to the chemistry and function of the male pheromone and of the cytology and physiology of the secretory structures . 5 The Mating Seguence o Before strict experimental analysis can be carried out, a series of preliminary observations must be made to compile an action sequence for the species . In insects behaviour patterns are totally inherited, the major exceptions being the social species . These inherited patterns may seem very rigid e.g. the form of the cases of the caadis fly larva Mollanna .fil!. is species specific with little individual variation in a natural population . \ hen conditions are altered however, the s e insects show a adaptability which would not be expected from a chain of unconditioned reflexes earthy ( 1965). Because of this adaptability, interp retation of behaviour under laboratory conditions must proceed with caution o Methods:- The most critical condition for the observation 6 of a noctu r nal moth would appear to be lighting conditions . Shorey (1966) found that the response of male Trichoplusia ni was greatly inhibited at light intensities greater than one lux . Compared with the mamalian eye, the visible spectrum of the insects compound eye is shifted towards the ultra violet end. Burkhardt ( 19 64) states "The bee does not react to wavelengths above about 600 mu nor do most other insects investigated unless extreme intensities are appliedn . For this study, a light was produced with no emmision of wavelengths below 600 mu (checked with Hitachi recording spectroph0tometer) . Moths of this species showed definite changes in flight pattern near this light source and its use was discontinued . Other noctuids have also been shown to detect red wavelengths e . g . Birch (1970) found that males of Plusia gamma orientate toward direct light from a red bulb in preference to a receptive female . Distant fluorescent light were used as the light source in this study . By comparison with the accurately measured light intensity of a variac controlled bulb , it was estimated that the experimental light intensity was less than one lux . 7 It wa s not found necessary to provide artificial air movement as mating occurred readily in the a l most completely enclo s ed glass cages . In contrast males of Phlogophora meticulos a were unable to orientate to females in still air Birch ( 1970) . The other experimental conditions were not unusual . Seven to nine pairs of virgin moths from a laboratory culture were placed in a glass observation cage , with an internal volume of 2 . 8 . x 1o4 cmJ, immediately following emergence . A solution of 1~ sucrose was continuously available on a wad of cotton wool, suspended from the roof of the cage . Temperatures were in the region of 20°c . Results;- The observed sequence was not complex . After a period of sexual display the male located the passive female and mated. f The first overt sexual action of the male was the rhythmical extrusion and retraction of the externa l genita lia ,vhile at rest on the side of the cage . The number of males active in this way increased, till about an hour later this display gave way to active f.light with the genitalia continously extruded . These males approached females from below and 8 behind, while curving the abdomen upward so that the external genitalia approached the abdomenal tip of the female (see fi g t). Exsertion of the hair pencils was not observed . From this posi tion, which was .1held for upwards of a second, the male made an upward turning snatch, clasping the tip of females abdomen with the valvae . The whole sequence of coupling from approach to comp letion rarely requ ired mo re than two seconds . After coupling the male hung downwards and the pair moved steadily towards the floor . The male appeared to be the active partner in thi s descent , with the female passively following . Courtship by the male always appeared to be directed toward females . Only on one ocassion was a displaying ma le observed to pass close to anothe r male , but it did not orientate itself toward the second male in any way . Successful mating occurred only with females resting motionless on a vertical surface, or on the lower side of a horizontal surface . The posture of the female was variable . Sometimes the female was observed to assume a "calling" position . The costal margin of the wings was strongly depressed, the thorax and wings fonning a triangle while the abdomen was markedly elevated . The posture of other females was indistinguishable from that of resting moth.. Most of the observed unsuccessful matings were due to the approached moth walking or flying away 0 9 ;r ... • 0 I f ... • "' ~ I ~ ~ .., t CD I ;. 10 before contact was made . One male was observed to clasp another moth as it flew past . The clasped moth beat its wings strongly and the pair separated about a minute after initiation of contact . The majority of matings were observed to occur between 1 0 : 00 p • m. to 1 1 : 3 0 p • rn . Conclusions:-The observed mating sequence of Pseudale tia separata contained no behavioural elements not al ready described for other species . Comparison of the mating sequence of Trichoplusia .!l!. Shorey ( 1964) Grant ( 1970) and Phlogophora meticulosa Dirch ( 1970) with ,'seudalctia scparata revealed several differences in the precopulatory behaviour of the nales . During the pre-copulatory fli~ht, E_. meticulosa and E_. separata were observed to evert the external genitalia frequently, an action seen in T . ni only just before copulation . To locate the female, both!,. !!! and P. meticulosa need to orientate to an airstream ,mile in f ight , a requirement not seen in P . separata . The initial contact with the female is tactile in I,. ni (antennae and tarsi) and f. • meticulosa ( antennae only) w:1ile £.. separata appeared not to touch the female with either . In all three species , the external genitalia are extruded and orientated toward the abdomenal tip of the female . The clasping of the female which follows, occurs whi le the ma le hovers beside CJ:. . rii) or below (f.. separata} the female , while in f,. meticulosa. 11 the male must land before the genitalia are engaged. P. meticulosa and f. . separata possess anterior hair pencils, while T. ni has a pair of scent lJrushs near the external genitalia . These scent brushs appear and are spr~ad briefly just before mating l.irant ( 1970) . Similiarly Bi rch ( 1970) reports the eversion of the hair pencil following orientation of the external genitalia tvward the female . The failure to observe a similiar eversion of the hair pencils of ~ - separata may be due inadequate experimental conditions . The density of the experimental population may have been too high, or the light intensity may have been too high . The structure is most unlikely to be vestigal , as several individuals from a wild population sampled with a light trap had the hair pencils everted and folded between the thorax and abdomen , or more rarely, hangin~ loosely . Bi rch (1970) demonstrated tha hairpencil eversion inf.• meticulosa i s obligato ry for successful copulation •. From the description of Grant {1970) it appears that spreading of the brushes does not occur in all successful matings of T. ni . Other species eg . Spilosoma lubricipeda (Arctiidae) and Deilephila elpenor {Sphingidae) ma te in the laboratory without coremata or hair pencil oversion Birch (1970) . It is thus concluded that in_. separata and some other species , hair pencil eversion is facultative , while in other species eg . , f . meticulosa this behavioural element is obligatory . The "calling" attitude of the Lepidopteran female appears to be adopted in order to disperse a pheromone , a suggest on frLrEtt. 12 made by Poulton ( 1928) . This attitude is reported from many families eg, Sanninoidea exitiosa ( f am . se s sidae) Smith ( 1965) Ana3asta kuhniella ( ram . Phyci tidae) .• ichard nnd Thompson ( 1932) a nd 1, rotoparce s exta ( fam . Sp hin~ida c) Allan and Hodge ( 1955) . The postu re of fe males of T . ni ap pears to be identica l t o t hat of P . s eparnta . The ei "1 th and ninth abdomenal s e n·,r.e n ts usua lly retracteu v;ithin the s eventh are extruded, Shorey ( 1961 .. ) ex posing the modified intersegmental rembrane t hat produces the pheromone . Jefferson Shorey a nd Gaston (1966). As males of~- rneticulosa respond to artificially everted ~l ands a t any time , 13irch ( 1970) su rrgests that eversion of t he fe r ale gland is the event determining the species specific time of matin3 . A mated pair would be very vulnerable to predation due to the difficulty of movement while paired and the conspicuous nature of the behaviour that preceded mating . Brower, Brower and Cranston (1965) suggest that the function of the post nuptial fli ght in Danaus gilippus berenice is to carry the pair away from where they have been so conspicuously active to a less obvious area . By analogy , a similiar function is suggested for the downward movement of mated pair observed in~ separata . i 1 

The role of the male produced pheromone in the reproduction behaviour of the southern armyworm Pseudaletia separata (Wlk.) : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Zoology.

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The role of the male produced pheromone in the reproduction behaviour of the southern armyworm Pseudaletia separata (Wlk.) : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Zoology.

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