This white paper describes the astrobiological significance of the Enceladus plume, and makes a series of scientific and technological recommendations that would lead to a future mission that samples and analyzes plume materials, and searches for evidence of life

Davila, Alfonso

Eigenbrode, Jennifer

Hurford, Terry

McKay, Christopher P.

Willson, David

NASA Technical Reports Server

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Follow the plume: Organic molecules and habitable conditions in 
the subsurface ocean of Enceladus  
Primary Author:  
Alfonso Davila, NASA Ames Research Center (alfonso.davila@nasa.gov; Phone: 650-604-0695) 
Co-Authors:  
Christopher P. McKay (NASA Ames Research Center)  
David Willson (Kiss Institute) 
Jennifer Eigenbrode (NASA Goddard Space Flight Center) 
Terry Hurford (NASA Goddard Space Flight Center) 
 
 
Table of Contents 1.	Enceladus:	organic	chemistry	in	a	habitable	ocean	..............................................................................	2	2.	Science	goal:	The	origin	of	organic	molecules	in	the	subsurface	ocean	of	Enceladus	...........	3	3.	Key	technological	challenges	..........................................................................................................................	3	3.1	Simulations	of	plume	formation	and	ejection	..................................................................................	3	3.2	Sampling	the	plume	.....................................................................................................................................	4	3.3	Provide	analytical	instruments	with	the	best	possible	sample	................................................	4	3.4	Contamination	Control	...............................................................................................................................	5	4.	Summary	of	recommendations	......................................................................................................................	5	5.	References	...............................................................................................................................................................	5	
  
https://ntrs.nasa.gov/search.jsp?R=20180001231 2019-08-30T12:40:18+00:00Z
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1. Enceladus: organic chemistry in a habitable ocean 
Are we alone in the Universe? The search for life beyond Earth is the most compelling scientific 
question of our time; a positive detection would be one of the most profound discoveries ever made 
by humanity. Chemical evidence of habitable conditions and organic compounds make Saturn's 
moon Enceladus a promising lead in the search for life beyond Earth. 
In 2005 Cassini’s Imaging Science Subsystem (ISS) discovered a plume of gas and icy particles venting into 
space over the South Polar Terrain (SPT) of Saturn’s icy moon Enceladus (Fig 1) [1–5]. The SPT is a region 
dominated geologically by large rifts in the icy crust, informally called ‘tiger stripes.’ The plume erupts along 
active fractures as diffuse curtains of material, with localized regions of enhanced eruption, called ‘jets’ [3,6,7]. 
Sources of jets and curtains along vents coincide with the warmest regions of the fracture system [3,6], and 
the plume varies in brightness with orbital position [8]; it is likely that tidal stress along the tiger stripes 
modulates its eruption activity with a maximum output when Enceladus is furthest from Saturn [9]. 
Erupted material is the source of particles that make up Saturn’s E-ring [5] first observed in 1966 [10], but 
mantling materials over the SPT [1] point to plume fallout deposits at least several meters thick, or >103 
years old considering deposition rates between 10-2 and 10-3 mm/yr [11]. The actual longevity of the 
plume could be >104 and perhaps >106 years, assuming the E-ring is a source of oxygen compounds in 
Titan’s atmosphere [12], and of mantling materials on the surface of Helene .   
Plume emissions consist of icy particles and vapor originated in an ocean of liquid water 10 km deep, 
located 30-40 km beneath the moon’s surface [13–15]. Cassini flew by Enceladus 22 times, spatially 
resolving the structure and composition of the plume [13,16–19]. During the second flyby (E2) at high 
altitude (>150 km) and high speed (>15 km/s), the Ion Neutral Mass Spectrometer (INMS) detected 
gaseous H2O and CO2 [13]. During lower flybys (<50 km altitude, <10 km/s) (E5, E14, E17, E18), 
INMS also detected H2, CH4, HCN, methanol, formaldehyde, C2-4 alkenes, C2-5 alkanes, and benzene 
[13,14,19]; and the Cosmic Dust Analyzer (CDA) detected icy particles containing sodium and potassium 
salts [18] and refractory organics [17]. Salt-bearing particles are found to dominate the total mass flux of 
ejected solids (>99% by mass), but are depleted in the population escaping into the E-ring [18]. While the 
abundance of sodium in salt-bearing particles is fairly consistent (~0.5-2% by mass) [15,18], the abundance 
of total organics appears to range dramatically from a few parts per million (ppm) in some particles to 50% 
by mass in others [18]. The CDA also found silica nanoparticles in the E-ring that were linked to ongoing, 
alkaline hydrothermal activity at the ocean-sediment interface [20,21] reminiscent of hydrothermal vent 
systems in Earth's deep oceans. Ocean temperatures likely range from ~0°C near plume sources to ~90°C 
at the hydrothermal vents, and recent geochemical models of the ocean indicate an alkaline pH of ~11-12 
(Glein et al. 2015), but estimates range from 6 to 12 [22–24]. Collectively, these observations are 
suggestive of a subsurface ocean in contact with the moon’s rocky core [13,15,20,21]. 
Cassini provided a snapshot of a familiar, 
and yet alien, world that has many of the 
components—internal heat, an extensive 
liquid-water ocean, organics, and 
geochemical cycling—necessary to support 
an extant biosphere. In this white paper put 
forward a series of specific 
recommendations to the next NASA 
Astrobiology Strategy emphasizing key 
science investigation of the Enceladus 
plume (and any other plume discovered in 
the future) and the technology needed to 
achieve them. 
	
Figure 1. Enceladus has a subsurface ocean with the necessary 
conditions to support life. Its plume of icy particles and gas provides a 
unique opportunity to investigate the ocean without descending into it. 
Image credit: NASA/JPL 	
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2. Science goal: The origin of organic molecules in the subsurface ocean of Enceladus 
One of NASA’s most immediate priority goals should be to define a science strategy to determine 
the origin of organic molecules in the subsurface ocean of Enceladus. Once defined, this science 
strategy would become the foundation on which to build mission enabling technologies in the next 
10 years. Based on previous recommendations [25–30], the origin of organic molecules in a given 
environment is best determined through chemical and structural analyses of different classes of 
organic compounds, such as patterns in molecular carbon number, isotopic ratios, dominant 
presence of specific molecular structures, etc. However, there is limited literature and even less 
consensus on the range of possible chemical and structural solutions—the chemical space—
expected to exist in a subsurface ocean such as Enceladus. There is also little consensus on what 
specific molecular patterns, isotopic ratios, structures, etc. would be indicative of biotic or abiotic 
sources of organic compounds. Given the likelihood of a mission that investigates the organic 
chemistry of the Enceladus’ ocean within the next 20 years, it is imperative that the broader 
astrobiological community agrees upon a “set of rules” on what would constitute evidence of abiotic 
or biotic sources of organic compounds in the Enceladus ocean. This “set of rules” would be better 
formulated as a series of scientific hypotheses that can be verified or falsified by sample analyses. 
We therefore recommend that the next NASA Astrobiology Strategy emphasizes the need 
for a hypothesis-based framework to assess the origin of organic matter (biotic or abiotic) in 
the Enceladus ocean.   
3. Key technological challenges  
There are three foreseeable technological challenges in the study of organic molecules in the 
Enceladus ocean: (1) Simulations of plume formation and ejection into space; (2) Sampling the 
water; and (3) Providing analytical instruments with the best possible sample. 
3.1 Simulations of plume formation and ejection 
Enceladus is the only icy world known so far to have a sustained plume that samples a subsurface 
ocean, although hints of plume activity have been observed on Europa using remote imaging [31]. 
While our reconnaissance of icy moons in the outer Solar System has been limited to a few 
flythrough missions, plume activity in these bodies could be a common phenomenon. Given the 
relevance of plumes to investigate the interior of ocean worlds, it is important to understand how 
plumes form and are sustained through time, and how materials from the ocean, including organic 
molecules, change when they are ejected into space, due for example to rapid freezing, condensation 
or UV exposure. This requires both theoretical and empirical studies. Numerical plume simulations 
based on Cassini data have been used to constrain plume dynamics, particle density and particle size 
distribution [4,32]. We contend, however, that empirical studies would provide the most useful and 
reliable information, and would also provide analog samples that can be analyzed with prototype 
technology for future missions. But simulating plumes on icy worlds requires significant 
technological investment to recreate salt organic laden micrometer sized ice grains at 100 K, 
travelling at the spacecraft plume flythrough speeds as well as the vacuum and cold temperatures in 
the space environment. Current ad hoc solutions exist [e.g., 32], such as the use of high-speed vertical 
gun facilities at NASA ARC*  (Fig 2), but these solutions are clearly not optimized. Therefore, we 
recommend that that the next NASA Astrobiology Strategy emphasizes the need for 
technology funding to develop better “plume simulators”, in a way similar to efforts in the 
past decades to develop “planet simulators” using chambers (e.g., Mars simulation 
chambers). 
 
																																																								*https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/files/ames-vertical-gun-range-v2010(1).pdf 
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3.2 Sampling the plume  
In the context of Enceladus, sampling the ocean 
means an approach to analyze a sample—as 
small as a few micrograms, and scalable with 
probable improvements in limits of detection 
and/or certainty of result up to several grams—
of the subsurface ocean. The plume of icy 
particles emanating from the South Polar 
Terrains provides direct access to the subsurface 
ocean without landing on the moon’s surface. 
As discussed in Section 3.1, how closely plume 
materials represent the composition of the 
subsurface ocean remains a significant 
knowledge gap. In addition to natural processes 
affecting the composition of plume materials, 
plume sampling technology needs to take into 
account the stability of organic molecules 
during sampling. High sampling speeds (i.e. >3-
4 km/sec) would cause significant damage to 
molecules, which could complicate chemical 
and structural analyses. Therefore, we 
recommend that that the next NASA 
Astrobiology Strategy emphasizes the need 
for technology funding to develop plume 
sampling devices, as well as investigations 
that seek to understand how organic 
molecules become altered during plume sampling. As an example, the ALE3D hydrocode has 
been implemented at NASA ARC to understand the behavior of ice grains colliding with sample 
collectors at high speeds. The development of “plume simulators” would be a key component in this 
effort. In addition, all available models of the Enceladus plume suggest that the amount of material 
collected after one plume flythrough could be very small (2-5 µL), and therefore microfluidic devices 
might be needed to handle the fluid, as discussed in the next section.  
3.3 Provide analytical instruments with the best possible sample  
The 2015 Astrobiology Strategy singles out certain techniques that in retrospect are relevant to the 
investigation of organic compounds in the Enceladus ocean, including melting and filtration of ice, 
followed by ultra-sensitive analysis using various chemical techniques such as immunoassays, lab-on-
a-chip methods using capillary electrophoresis and laser induced fluorescence and ultra-sensitive 
mass spectrometry. However, it obviated the fact that in the case of plume samples, instruments 
must be able to handle tiny sample volumes (2-5 µL), and these sensitive analytical tools often 
require different sample handling and preparation functions, including: (1) Integrated pumping, 
metering, valving, and control of flow rate and pressure; (2) Filtering non-soluble particles by size; 
(3) In-situ measurement and adjustment, up or down, of both ionic strength (conductivity) and pH; 
(4) Admixture of reagents such as dyes, stains, and fluorescent labels; (5) Degasing and trapping of 
bubbles; (6) Distributing appropriately preprocessed sample aliquots to analytical instruments at the 
appropriate flow rate and total fluid volume, with repeat aliquots for redundant analyses that will 
increase the statistical power of the results.  
Technology for handling and preparation of small liquid samples in the environment of space is still 
incipient. Over the past decade, NASA ARC has developed, space qualified, and operated a range of 
	
	
Figure 2. The Ames Vertical Gun Range (AVGR) is typically 
used to simulate high-speed, celestial body impacts on a 
small scale, and recently it has been adapted to simulate 
plumes emanating from icy moons [33].		
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bioanalytical / bioprocessor systems that comprised the payloads of multiple nanosatellite missions 
to study living biological organisms in Earth orbit [34–37]. More development is needed to adapt 
these existing technologies, or invent new ones, for long-term Astrobiology missions to investigate 
plumes in the outer Solar System. Therefore, we recommend that that the next NASA 
Astrobiology Strategy emphasizes the development of front-end microfluidic technology to 
handle and prepare small volumes of liquid samples, with the goal of maximizing the 
performance of back-end analytical systems. 
3.4 Contamination Control  
Due to the low organic abundances expected in the Enceladus ocean [38], any mission that seeks 
evidence of life in plume materials must implement stringent cleanliness and contamination control 
protocols at all mission levels to prevent a false positive results. Here, contaminant material refers to 
any organic compound classes that are targeted by the mission, such as amino acids, which were not 
originated in the Enceladus ocean, and include terrestrial sources as well as other possible sources 
between Earth and Enceladus. We note that the required contamination plan will likely have to go 
beyond standard planetary protection requirements that are concerned with the transfer of viable 
terrestrial organisms, since non-viable terrestrial organisms could still be a source of organic material 
and cause a false positive result. We recommend that that the next NASA Astrobiology Strategy 
emphasizes the need to define an adequate contamination control strategy to sample and 
analyze the Enceladus plume and also captures the need to fund and develop the 
technology necessary to implement that strategy. 
4. Summary of recommendations 
-We recommend that the next NASA Astrobiology Strategy emphasizes the need for a hypothesis-
based framework to assess the origin of organic matter (biotic or abiotic) in the Enceladus ocean. 
-We recommend that that the next NASA Astrobiology Strategy emphasizes the need for 
technology funding to develop better “plume simulators”, in a way similar to efforts in the past 
decades to develop “planet simulators” using chambers (e.g., Mars simulation chambers). 
-We recommend that that the next NASA Astrobiology Strategy emphasizes the need for 
technology funding to develop plume sampling devices, as well as investigations that seek to 
understand how organic molecules become altered during plume sampling. 
-We recommend that that the next NASA Astrobiology Strategy emphasizes the development of 
front-end microfluidic technology to handle and prepare small volumes of liquid samples, with the 
goal of maximizing the performance of back-end analytical systems. 
-We recommend that that the next NASA Astrobiology Strategy emphasizes the need to define an 
adequate contamination control strategy to sample and analyze the Enceladus plume and also 
captures the need to fund and develop the necessary technology to implement that strategy. 
 
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Follow the Plume: Organic Molecules and Habitable Conditions in the Subsurface Ocean of Enceladus

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