Potential Environmental and Human Health Impacts of
Rechargeable Lithium Batteries in Electronic Waste
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Abstract
Rechargeable
lithium-ion (Li-ion) and lithium-polymer (Li-poly)
batteries have recently become dominant in consumer electronic products
because of advantages associated with energy density and product longevity.
However, the small size of these batteries, the high rate of disposal
of consumer products in which they are used, and the lack of uniform
regulatory policy on their disposal means that lithium batteries may
contribute substantially to environmental pollution and adverse human
health impacts due to potentially toxic materials. In this research,
we used standardized leaching tests, life-cycle impact assessment
(LCIA), and hazard assessment models to evaluate hazardous waste classification,
resource depletion potential, and toxicity potentials of lithium batteries
used in cellphones. Our results demonstrate that according to U.S.
federal regulations, defunct Li-ion batteries are classified hazardous
due to their lead (Pb) content (average 6.29 mg/L; σ = 11.1;
limit 5). However, according to California regulations, all lithium
batteries tested are classified hazardous due to excessive levels
of cobalt (average 163 544 mg/kg; σ = 62 897;
limit 8000), copper (average 98 694 mg/kg; σ = 28 734;
limit 2500), and nickel (average 9525 mg/kg; σ = 11 438;
limit 2000). In some of the Li-ion batteries, the leached concentrations
of chromium, lead, and thallium exceeded the California regulation
limits. The environmental impact associated with resource depletion
and human toxicity is mainly associated with cobalt, copper, nickel,
thallium, and silver, whereas the ecotoxicity potential is primarily
associated with cobalt, copper, nickel, thallium, and silver. However,
the relative contribution of aluminum and lithium to human toxicity
and ecotoxicity could not be estimated due to insufficient toxicity
data in the models. These findings support the need for stronger government
policy at the local, national, and international levels to encourage
recovery, recycling, and reuse of lithium battery materials