<p><b>The elephant effect size using the Cohen’s d ± 95% CI statistic separately for the structure, abundance, population dynamics, diversity and the associated ecological processes of trees and herbs (a) and vertebrates and invertebrates (b).</b> The first value in the bracket indicates the number of papers (<i>n</i>) from which we extracted the variables, and the second is the number of variables (<i>k</i>) used in calculating the effect sizes.</p