Research in the field of neuroscience has exploded in the past decade. The word brain appears in the title of nearly 40,000 books and CDs indicating intense interest in this area of study. What can music educators learn from recent investigations—often termed brain research—to guide music teaching and learning? The following ideas are intended to have broad applications and may inspire you to investigate this fascinating area of literature more thoroughly. While some findings are new, other studies affirm what music educators have previously found to be effective

Flohr, John W

Persellin, Diane C.

English

Persellin, Diane C

Trinity University

Trinity University Digital Commons @ Trinity Music Faculty Research Music Department 2-2011 Applying Brain Research to Classroom Strategies Diane C. Persellin Trinity University, dpersell@trinity.edu John W. Flohr Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.trinity.edu/music_faculty  Part of the Music Commons Repository Citation Persellin, D., & Flohr, J.W. (2011). Applying brain research to classroom strategies. Southwestern Musician, 79(7), 27-33. This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Music Department at Digital Commons @ Trinity. It has been accepted for inclusion in Music Faculty Research by an authorized administrator of Digital Commons @ Trinity. For more information, please contact jcostanz@trinity.edu. R esearch in the field of neuroscience has exploded in the past decade. The word brain appears in the title of nearly 40,000 books and CDs indicating intense inter-est in this area of study. What can music educators learn from recent investigations—often termed brain research—to guide music teaching and learning? The following ideas are intended to have broad applications and may inspire you to investigate this fascinating area of literature more thoroughly. While some find-ings are new, other studies affirm what music educators have pre-viously found to be effective. First Things FirstRecent investigations have verified that we tend to  remember best the information or experiences that are presented first. Information presented last is remembered second best. Recall of skills and concepts presented just past the middle of class is the weakest. These findings are known as primacy and recency in serial position effect (Reed, 2004; Terry, 2005).Teaching Applications:•	Music	teachers	can	capitalize	on	this	information	and	teach	the most important skills and concepts at the beginning of class when retention tends to be best.•	After	the	midpoint	of	class,	make	announcements,	work	in	small groups, take a break, or change the pace.•	Plan	to	end	class	strongly	with	closure	that	is	memorable	and involves a review or a mini-performance of the piece rehearsed that day. Repeat to Learn—Remember to RepeatRepetition converts short-term learning to long-term learn-ing. Learning is strengthened effectively through imitation that includes a twist to avoid boredom. Long-term memory becomes more reliable by incorporating new information gradually and repeating it regularly to strengthen memory connections. Talking about an event immediately after it occurs enhances memory for that event (Brown, 2004; Squire, 2004). Teaching Applications: •	A	short	review	of	previous	learning	primes	students	for	new	learning. Reviewing scale degrees or a fingering learned pre-viously prepares students for the next step. We can’t assume that students easily remember what was taught in the previ-ous class. •	Repeat	new	concepts	or	skills	using	different	music,	differ-ent learning modalities such as visual or kinesthetic ways of teaching, or even by standing in a different place in the room.•	Repeat	objectives	every	10	minutes.	Give	mini-closure	by	restating the objective at the end of each activity or event in class and then again at the end of class.•	Combine	seeing,	manipulating,	and	discussing	review	words. This reinforces learning and strengthens connec-tions.	At	the	closure	of	the	class,	word	walls	can	be	used	to	review concepts, skills, and information learned.Better Attention Equals Better LearningThe brain doesn’t pay attention to boring things. The more attention the brain pays to a given stimulus, the more elaborately information will be encoded and retained. Information that best grabs attention:	(1)	is	related	to	previous	learning.	The	brain	uses	past	experi-ence to predict whether we should pay attention. (2) provides the big picture before details. The brain initially Applying Brain Research to Classroom Strategiesby Diane Persellin and John W. Flohr 27Southwestern Musician  |  February 2011remembers overall emotional com-ponents of an experience rather than details. (3) is emotionally laden. When the brain detects an emotionally charged event, part of the brain (the amygdale) releases dopamine into the system which aids memory and information processing	(Medina,	2008;	Turk-Browne, Yi, & Chun, 2006). (See subsequent research conclusion on positive experiences.)Teaching Applications:•	At	the	beginning	of	class,	briefly	give students a verbal or visual plan to provide an overview of what will be learned so the brain can focus on learning rather than trying to multi-task to seek meaning.•	Connect	new	learning	to	previ-ous learning. Students don’t always see connections, so they need to be reminded of them to make learning relevant and to create associations between concepts.•	Use	metaphors	and	tell	stories	to	create a mood when introducing new music. Positive Experiences Affect LearningPositive	and	successful	learning	activi-ties stimulate the brain to reward itself through the release of hormones. The release of these hormones, such as sero-tonin and dopamine, is found to result in	feelings	of	satisfaction	(Medina,	2008;	Turk-Browne,	Yi,	&	Chun,	2006).	Music	activities stimulate areas on both sides of the brain and are associated with emo-tion, reward, and motivation (Blood &	 Zatorre,	 2001;	 Brown,	 Martinez,	 &	Parsons,	2004).	Learning	that	occurs	in	a	positive, safe, and affirming environment links new material with pleasant feelings so that recall of information brings back the positive affect.Teaching Applications: •	A	positive	teacher	attitude	and	passion	for music goes a long way in mak-ing learning pleasant and successful. While school is serious business, we learn more deeply when we are hav-ing fun.•	Teachers	who	demonstrate	enthusi-asm for teaching music and encour-age active participation from students will promote engaging and enjoyable learning.•	Make	repertoire	selections	relevant	to encourage positive learning. For example, before a band, choir, or orchestra concert, use several learning strategies to learn about and under-stand the music to be performed.•	Celebrate	learning.	Congratulate	students on their progress. Actively Engage StudentsCognitive scientists working with the Dana	Consortium	(Gazziniga,	2008)	con-firmed the advantages of active, hands-on learning. The entire body is intercon-nected with the brain and responds to and is stimulated by active engagement (Flohr &	Trollinger,	2010).	Teaching Applications:•	Rather	than	just	listening	to	drums	or watching a video of a performance, have	students	play	African	drums;	we learn by doing. If listening is required, structure lessons to be active, hands-on listening. •	Encourage	movement	in	perfor-mance.	Accomplished	artists	move	28 Southwestern Musician  |  February 2011while	performing.	Also	review	Eric	Jensen’s	15	tools	for	engagement	based on brain research, includ-ing call-response, walking fast to music, and repetitive gross movement (Jensen, 2003).Multisensory Input Strengthens Connections and RetrievalThe more elaborately we encode a memory, the deeper the learning will be as the brain has to work harder to pro-cess	 information.	Approaching	a	concept	from multiple angles strengthens overall understanding. Our senses evolved to work together so we learn best if we stim-ulate several senses at once (Flohr, 2004, 2010;	Medina,	2008).	Teaching Applications: •		When	teaching	a	rhythm	pattern,	invite students to hear it, chant and count it aloud, see it graphically or through notation, feel it kinestheti-cally with another student, clap or pat it, play it on a drum, and move to it. These multiple inputs strengthen the concept as well as make it easier to access later by retrieving newly-learned material from any of the sensory modes individually. •	When	teaching	a	melodic	contour,	sing it, show it with hands, draw it in the air and on the board, listen to the other half of the class sing it while moving, and discuss how it moves. Ask	students	to	point	to	the	contour	on the board while you or another student draws it. •	Make	it	a	priority	that	teaching	and learning be rich, multisensory experiences.Make Learning Relevant and EngagingStudents may not automatically under-stand why it is important to learn a fact or skill and may tune us out. Learning infor-mation that is personally meaningful to the learner is critical. Teachers can facili-tate learning by connecting new learn-ing challenges to students’ interests and skill levels. Comprehension is enhanced through the application of relevant expe-riences and instruction which builds on prior knowledge (Braun & Bock, 2007; Caine, 2005).Teaching Applications: •	Creative	and	successful	teachers	find	ways to make connections of seem-ingly unrelated concepts to stu-dents’ lives. Why should sixth-grade general music students learn about Beethoven?•	Match	music	tasks	with	students’	skill levels. This may mean stratifying group tasks into multiple levels of dif-ficulty and matching students to their appropriate levels. When students are totally engaged in tasks with levels of challenge that match their levels of competence, they are likely to feel energized,	satisfied,	and	happy.	If	tasks are too difficult, students feel frustrated; if tasks are too simple, they are bored. Imitation Is a Primary Way to LearnGood	modeling	of	vocal	sound,	healthy	habits when singing, playing instruments, and listening are essential in music class-rooms. Studies with human subjects have led to the identification of mirror neurons (Doidge,	2007;	Jossey-Bass,	2008;	Steen,	2007). These are neurons that fire when humans see or hear someone perform-ing an action or when we perform the action ourselves. Thus, the brain has built-in mechanisms that help us learn by imitation.Learning by imitation accelerates the process because the learner does not have to start from scratch. Through imitation, we can learn from experts. It is more dif-ficult for a novice to imagine a finished product unless presented with a model. Teaching Applications: •	Teachers	should	model	behaviors	they want students to emulate and provide high-quality examples of music performance. While this is self-evident, one should strive for a higher standard when working with novice or experienced musicians. If the only model a beginning violinist had was her own out-of-tune playing, she would never move toward the sound and look of an accomplished artist.•	It	is	not	enough	to	model	specific	behaviors from time to time; rather, teachers should constantly model appropriate behaviors. Students are always observing teachers. It should always be a case of do as I do rather than do as I say.Move to LearnFox,	 Parsons,	 and	 Hodges	 (1999)	found that the area of the brain that con-trols movement is activated when humans listen to music. The human brain learns from the body; it teaches the body how to deal with forces that arise when moving, how to pick up environmental informa-tion to guide movement toward antici-pated goals, and sets the foundation for human dynamics of music. Rote memo-rization,	 mindless	 repetition,	 skimming	of material, and drill may not be as effec-tive	 to	 form	 connections.	 Moving	 large	and small muscles through singing and 30 Southwestern Musician  |  February 2011 moving may lead to longer-term recall (Flohr	&	Trevarthen,	2008). Teaching Applications:•	In	music	ensembles	and	elemen-tary classrooms, move! Teach music in such a way that every student is motivated to move, dance, clap, or pat	to	music.	Dalcroze	eurhythmics	strategies can provide effective ways to engage students at all levels. •	Plan	to	have	students	meaningfully	and regularly move during every class. Don’t let students sit or stand too long without moving. Improvise to Activate the BrainStudents become actively engaged when given an opportunity to explore musical instruments. Researchers have found that the brain is more activated when improvising music than when sim-ply reproducing music by singing or play-ing.	 Bengtsson,	 Csikszentmihalyi,	 and	Ullen	(2007)	explored	brain	patterns	and	creativity during a study on improvisa-tion	with	pianists.	Using	magnetic	 reso-nance imaging, brain wave patterns of 11	pianists	were	 recorded	 as	 they	 played	a piano with their right hand. Subjects improvised,	played	a	memorized	passage,	and rested. Results demonstrated that the brain worked harder (more brain activa-tion) when students improvised than when	they	played	the	memorized	passage	or when they rested. Results were similar to those of another study conducted by Haier	&	Jung	(2008).Teaching applications: •	Invite	young	students	to	improvise	responses to musical questions, to create their own story songs and Orff instrument accompaniments, and to work with puppets that like to sing rather than speak. By encourag-ing their ability to improvise within parameters of musical restrictions, children learn that their music and creativity are valued.•	Older	students	can	create	answers	to musical questions, can improvise within a specified tonality, can write their own raps accompanied by a beat box, can practice scatting over a blues accompaniment, and more.CodaThe importance of research-based practice in music education cannot be Create your online convention schedule!www.tmea.org/conventionCreating an online schedule is also the first step for doc-umenting your CPE record after the convention.Go to the online personal schedule link on the conven-tion website. Search for clin-ics and concerts and create and print your own schedule.32 Southwestern Musician  |  February 2011overstated. While many recent studies confirm what we intuitively sense works in teaching, research can also guide us to find new teaching strategies. These new approaches may engage students more effectively and lead to greater retention and deeper musicality. Other publica-tions can provide additional resources and more in-depth discussion of the cognitive and neuroscience in these studies (Flohr, 2010;	Hodges,	2010;	Persellin,	2009).As	 a	 profession,	we	 are	 at	 the	 thresh-old	 of	 utilizing	 developing	 technology	for studying how the brain functions and analyzing	 which	 music	 teaching	 strate-gies	 are	most	 effective	 to	maximize	 our	efforts. Recent research holds the promise of a fuller understanding of the learning process, guiding music educators in the development and use of more effective teaching strategies. 0References Bengtsson,	 S.,	 Csikszentmihalyi,	 M.,	&	 Ullen,	 F.	 (2007).	 Cortical	 regions	involved in the generation of musi-cal structures during improvisation in pianists. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 19(13),	830–842.	Blood,	A.	&	Zatorre,	R.	 (2001).	 Intensely	pleasurable responses to music correlate with activity in brain regions implicated in reward and emotion. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences,	 98(20),	11,818–11,823.Braun,	 A.	 &	 Bock,	 J.	 (2007).	 Born	 to	learn:	 Early	 learning	 optimizes	 brain	function.	 In	W.	Gruhn	&	F.	Rauscher	(Eds.),	 Neurosciences and music pedagogy (pp.	 27–51).	New	 York:	Nova	 Science	Publishers.Brown, J. (2004). Short-term memory. In R.	 Gregory	 (Ed.),	 Oxford companion to the mind	(2nd	ed.),	(pp.	841–842).	New	York:	Oxford	University	Press.Brown,	 S.,	 Martinez,	 M.	 J.,	 &	 Parsons,	L.M.	 (2004).	 Passive	 music	 listen-ing spontaneously engages limbic and paralimbic systems. NeuroReport, 15(13),	2,033–2,037.Caine,	 G.,	 Caine,	 R.,	 McClintic,	 C.,	Klimek, K. (2005). 12 brain/mind learning principles in action. Thousand	Oaks,	CA:	Corwin	Press.Doidge,	N.	 (2007).	The brain that changes itself. New	York:	Viking-Penguin.	Flohr, J. W. (2004). Musical lives of young children.	 Upper	 Saddle	 River,	 NJ:	Prentice	Hall.	Flohr,	 J.	 W.	 (2010).	 Best	 practices	 for	young children’s music educa-tion:	 Guidance	 from	 brain	 research.	General Music Today, 23(2),	 13–19.	doi:10.1177/1048371309352344.Flohr,	 J.	 W.,	 &	 Trevarthen,	 C.	 (2008).	Music	 learning	 in	 Childhood–Early	developments of a musical brain and body.	 In	 W.	 Gruhn,	 &	 F.	 Rauscher	(Eds.),	 Neurosciences in music pedagogy (pp.	 53–99).	 Hauppage,	 New	 York:	Nova	Science	Publishers.	Flohr,	J.	W.,	&	Trollinger,	V.	(2010).	Music in elementary education. Upper	 Saddle	River,	NJ:	Prentice	Hall.	Fox,	P.,	Parsons,	L.,	&	Hodges,	D.	(1998).	Neural	 basis	 of	 the	 comprehension	 of	musical harmony, melody, and rhythm. Society for Neuroscience Abstracts,	28:	1763.Gazziniga,	M.	(ed)	(2006).	Learning,	arts,	and the brain: The Dana Consortium report,	 on	 arts	 and	 cognition.	 New	York: Dana Foundation. Haier,	R.,	&	Jung,	R.	(2008).	Brain	imag-ing of intelligence and creativity: What is the picture for education? Roeper Review,	30(20),	22–52.	Hodges,	 D.	 A.	 (2010).	 Can	 neurosci-ence help us do a better job of teaching music? General Music Today, 23(2),	3–12.	doi:10.1177/1048371309349569.Jensen,	 E.	 (2003).	 Tools for engagement: Managing emotional states for learner success. Bakersfield,	CA:	Corwin	Press.	Jossey-Bass	 (Ed.).	 (2008).	 The Jossey-Bass reader on the brain and learning. San Francisco,	CA:	Jossey-Bass	Publishing.	Medina,	J.	(2008).	Brain Rules.	Seattle,	WA:	Pear	Press.	Persellin,	D.	C.	(2009).	Brain-based	educa-tion	in	music:	A	new	science	or	science	fiction? Orff Echo,	41(3),	22–26.	Reed, S. K. (2004). Long-term memory in cognition theory and application (pp. 97–124).	Belmont:	Wadsworth.	Squire,	L.	(2004).	Memory	systems	of	the	brain:	A	Brief	history	and	current	per-spective. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory,	82	(3),	171–177.Steen, R. (2007). The evolving brain: The known and the unknown. Amhurst,	NY:	Promethus	Books.	Terry, S. (2005). Serial position effects in recall of television commercials. Journal of General Psychology	132(2):	151–164.	Turk-Browne,	 N.,	 Yi,	 D.,	 &	 Chun,	M.	 (2006).	 Linking	 implicit	 and	explicit memory: Common encod-ing factors and shared representations. Neuron, 49,	 (6)	 917–927.	 http://www.ncbi.nlm	.nih.gov/pubmed/16543138	(Retrieved	December	9,	2010.)Diane Persellin is Professor of Music Education at Trinity University and John W. Flohr is professor emeritus from Texas Woman’s University and on the fac-ulty of the Richard W. Riley College of Education and Leadership at Walden University.Comment on this article: tmea.org/features33Southwestern Musician  |  February 2011

Applying Brain Research to Classroom Strategies

Walden University

Walden University ScholarWorks Walden Faculty and Staff Publications 2-1-2011 Applying Brain Research to Classroom Strategies John W. Flohr Walden University Diane C. Persellin Trinity University Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/facpubs  Part of the Education Commons, and the Music Education Commons Recommended Citation Flohr, John W. and Persellin, Diane C., "Applying Brain Research to Classroom Strategies" (2011). Walden Faculty and Staff Publications. 168. https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/facpubs/168 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by ScholarWorks. It has been accepted for inclusion in Walden Faculty and Staff Publications by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks. For more information, please contact ScholarWorks@waldenu.edu. Walden UniversityScholarWorksThe Richard W. Riley College of Education andLeadership Publications Colleges and Schools2-2011Applying Brain Research to Classroom StrategiesJohn W. FlohrWalden UniversityDiane C. PersellinTrinity UniversityFollow this and additional works at: http://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/cel_pubsPart of the Education Commons, and the Music Education CommonsThis Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Colleges and Schools at ScholarWorks. It has been accepted for inclusion in The RichardW. Riley College of Education and Leadership Publications by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks. For more information, please contactScholarWorks@waldenu.edu.R esearch in the field of neuroscience has exploded in the past decade. The word brain appears in the title of nearly 40,000 books and CDs indicating intense inter-est in this area of study. What can music educators learn from recent investigations—often termed brain research—to guide music teaching and learning? The following ideas are intended to have broad applications and may inspire you to investigate this fascinating area of literature more thoroughly. While some find-ings are new, other studies affirm what music educators have pre-viously found to be effective. First Things FirstRecent investigations have verified that we tend to  remember best the information or experiences that are presented first. Information presented last is remembered second best. Recall of skills and concepts presented just past the middle of class is the weakest. These findings are known as primacy and recency in serial position effect (Reed, 2004; Terry, 2005).Teaching Applications:•	Music	teachers	can	capitalize	on	this	information	and	teach	the most important skills and concepts at the beginning of class when retention tends to be best.•	After	the	midpoint	of	class,	make	announcements,	work	in	small groups, take a break, or change the pace.•	Plan	to	end	class	strongly	with	closure	that	is	memorable	and involves a review or a mini-performance of the piece rehearsed that day. Repeat to Learn—Remember to RepeatRepetition converts short-term learning to long-term learn-ing. Learning is strengthened effectively through imitation that includes a twist to avoid boredom. Long-term memory becomes more reliable by incorporating new information gradually and repeating it regularly to strengthen memory connections. Talking about an event immediately after it occurs enhances memory for that event (Brown, 2004; Squire, 2004). Teaching Applications: •	A	short	review	of	previous	learning	primes	students	for	new	learning. Reviewing scale degrees or a fingering learned pre-viously prepares students for the next step. We can’t assume that students easily remember what was taught in the previ-ous class. •	Repeat	new	concepts	or	skills	using	different	music,	differ-ent learning modalities such as visual or kinesthetic ways of teaching, or even by standing in a different place in the room.•	Repeat	objectives	every	10	minutes.	Give	mini-closure	by	restating the objective at the end of each activity or event in class and then again at the end of class.•	Combine	seeing,	manipulating,	and	discussing	review	words. This reinforces learning and strengthens connec-tions.	At	the	closure	of	the	class,	word	walls	can	be	used	to	review concepts, skills, and information learned.Better Attention Equals Better LearningThe brain doesn’t pay attention to boring things. The more attention the brain pays to a given stimulus, the more elaborately information will be encoded and retained. Information that best grabs attention:	(1)	is	related	to	previous	learning.	The	brain	uses	past	experi-ence to predict whether we should pay attention. (2) provides the big picture before details. The brain initially Applying Brain Research to Classroom Strategiesby Diane Persellin and John W. Flohr 27Southwestern Musician  |  February 2011remembers overall emotional com-ponents of an experience rather than details. (3) is emotionally laden. When the brain detects an emotionally charged event, part of the brain (the amygdale) releases dopamine into the system which aids memory and information processing	(Medina,	2008;	Turk-Browne, Yi, & Chun, 2006). (See subsequent research conclusion on positive experiences.)Teaching Applications:•	At	the	beginning	of	class,	briefly	give students a verbal or visual plan to provide an overview of what will be learned so the brain can focus on learning rather than trying to multi-task to seek meaning.•	Connect	new	learning	to	previ-ous learning. Students don’t always see connections, so they need to be reminded of them to make learning relevant and to create associations between concepts.•	Use	metaphors	and	tell	stories	to	create a mood when introducing new music. Positive Experiences Affect LearningPositive	and	successful	learning	activi-ties stimulate the brain to reward itself through the release of hormones. The release of these hormones, such as sero-tonin and dopamine, is found to result in	feelings	of	satisfaction	(Medina,	2008;	Turk-Browne,	Yi,	&	Chun,	2006).	Music	activities stimulate areas on both sides of the brain and are associated with emo-tion, reward, and motivation (Blood &	 Zatorre,	 2001;	 Brown,	 Martinez,	 &	Parsons,	2004).	Learning	that	occurs	in	a	positive, safe, and affirming environment links new material with pleasant feelings so that recall of information brings back the positive affect.Teaching Applications: •	A	positive	teacher	attitude	and	passion	for music goes a long way in mak-ing learning pleasant and successful. While school is serious business, we learn more deeply when we are hav-ing fun.•	Teachers	who	demonstrate	enthusi-asm for teaching music and encour-age active participation from students will promote engaging and enjoyable learning.•	Make	repertoire	selections	relevant	to encourage positive learning. For example, before a band, choir, or orchestra concert, use several learning strategies to learn about and under-stand the music to be performed.•	Celebrate	learning.	Congratulate	students on their progress. Actively Engage StudentsCognitive scientists working with the Dana	Consortium	(Gazziniga,	2008)	con-firmed the advantages of active, hands-on learning. The entire body is intercon-nected with the brain and responds to and is stimulated by active engagement (Flohr &	Trollinger,	2010).	Teaching Applications:•	Rather	than	just	listening	to	drums	or watching a video of a performance, have	students	play	African	drums;	we learn by doing. If listening is required, structure lessons to be active, hands-on listening. •	Encourage	movement	in	perfor-mance.	Accomplished	artists	move	28 Southwestern Musician  |  February 2011while	performing.	Also	review	Eric	Jensen’s	15	tools	for	engagement	based on brain research, includ-ing call-response, walking fast to music, and repetitive gross movement (Jensen, 2003).Multisensory Input Strengthens Connections and RetrievalThe more elaborately we encode a memory, the deeper the learning will be as the brain has to work harder to pro-cess	 information.	Approaching	a	concept	from multiple angles strengthens overall understanding. Our senses evolved to work together so we learn best if we stim-ulate several senses at once (Flohr, 2004, 2010;	Medina,	2008).	Teaching Applications: •		When	teaching	a	rhythm	pattern,	invite students to hear it, chant and count it aloud, see it graphically or through notation, feel it kinestheti-cally with another student, clap or pat it, play it on a drum, and move to it. These multiple inputs strengthen the concept as well as make it easier to access later by retrieving newly-learned material from any of the sensory modes individually. •	When	teaching	a	melodic	contour,	sing it, show it with hands, draw it in the air and on the board, listen to the other half of the class sing it while moving, and discuss how it moves. Ask	students	to	point	to	the	contour	on the board while you or another student draws it. •	Make	it	a	priority	that	teaching	and learning be rich, multisensory experiences.Make Learning Relevant and EngagingStudents may not automatically under-stand why it is important to learn a fact or skill and may tune us out. Learning infor-mation that is personally meaningful to the learner is critical. Teachers can facili-tate learning by connecting new learn-ing challenges to students’ interests and skill levels. Comprehension is enhanced through the application of relevant expe-riences and instruction which builds on prior knowledge (Braun & Bock, 2007; Caine, 2005).Teaching Applications: •	Creative	and	successful	teachers	find	ways to make connections of seem-ingly unrelated concepts to stu-dents’ lives. Why should sixth-grade general music students learn about Beethoven?•	Match	music	tasks	with	students’	skill levels. This may mean stratifying group tasks into multiple levels of dif-ficulty and matching students to their appropriate levels. When students are totally engaged in tasks with levels of challenge that match their levels of competence, they are likely to feel energized,	satisfied,	and	happy.	If	tasks are too difficult, students feel frustrated; if tasks are too simple, they are bored. Imitation Is a Primary Way to LearnGood	modeling	of	vocal	sound,	healthy	habits when singing, playing instruments, and listening are essential in music class-rooms. Studies with human subjects have led to the identification of mirror neurons (Doidge,	2007;	Jossey-Bass,	2008;	Steen,	2007). These are neurons that fire when humans see or hear someone perform-ing an action or when we perform the action ourselves. Thus, the brain has built-in mechanisms that help us learn by imitation.Learning by imitation accelerates the process because the learner does not have to start from scratch. Through imitation, we can learn from experts. It is more dif-ficult for a novice to imagine a finished product unless presented with a model. Teaching Applications: •	Teachers	should	model	behaviors	they want students to emulate and provide high-quality examples of music performance. While this is self-evident, one should strive for a higher standard when working with novice or experienced musicians. If the only model a beginning violinist had was her own out-of-tune playing, she would never move toward the sound and look of an accomplished artist.•	It	is	not	enough	to	model	specific	behaviors from time to time; rather, teachers should constantly model appropriate behaviors. Students are always observing teachers. It should always be a case of do as I do rather than do as I say.Move to LearnFox,	 Parsons,	 and	 Hodges	 (1999)	found that the area of the brain that con-trols movement is activated when humans listen to music. The human brain learns from the body; it teaches the body how to deal with forces that arise when moving, how to pick up environmental informa-tion to guide movement toward antici-pated goals, and sets the foundation for human dynamics of music. Rote memo-rization,	 mindless	 repetition,	 skimming	of material, and drill may not be as effec-tive	 to	 form	 connections.	 Moving	 large	and small muscles through singing and 30 Southwestern Musician  |  February 2011 moving may lead to longer-term recall (Flohr	&	Trevarthen,	2008). Teaching Applications:•	In	music	ensembles	and	elemen-tary classrooms, move! Teach music in such a way that every student is motivated to move, dance, clap, or pat	to	music.	Dalcroze	eurhythmics	strategies can provide effective ways to engage students at all levels. •	Plan	to	have	students	meaningfully	and regularly move during every class. Don’t let students sit or stand too long without moving. Improvise to Activate the BrainStudents become actively engaged when given an opportunity to explore musical instruments. Researchers have found that the brain is more activated when improvising music than when sim-ply reproducing music by singing or play-ing.	 Bengtsson,	 Csikszentmihalyi,	 and	Ullen	(2007)	explored	brain	patterns	and	creativity during a study on improvisa-tion	with	pianists.	Using	magnetic	 reso-nance imaging, brain wave patterns of 11	pianists	were	 recorded	 as	 they	 played	a piano with their right hand. Subjects improvised,	played	a	memorized	passage,	and rested. Results demonstrated that the brain worked harder (more brain activa-tion) when students improvised than when	they	played	the	memorized	passage	or when they rested. Results were similar to those of another study conducted by Haier	&	Jung	(2008).Teaching applications: •	Invite	young	students	to	improvise	responses to musical questions, to create their own story songs and Orff instrument accompaniments, and to work with puppets that like to sing rather than speak. By encourag-ing their ability to improvise within parameters of musical restrictions, children learn that their music and creativity are valued.•	Older	students	can	create	answers	to musical questions, can improvise within a specified tonality, can write their own raps accompanied by a beat box, can practice scatting over a blues accompaniment, and more.CodaThe importance of research-based practice in music education cannot be Create your online convention schedule!www.tmea.org/conventionCreating an online schedule is also the first step for doc-umenting your CPE record after the convention.Go to the online personal schedule link on the conven-tion website. Search for clin-ics and concerts and create and print your own schedule.32 Southwestern Musician  |  February 2011overstated. While many recent studies confirm what we intuitively sense works in teaching, research can also guide us to find new teaching strategies. These new approaches may engage students more effectively and lead to greater retention and deeper musicality. Other publica-tions can provide additional resources and more in-depth discussion of the cognitive and neuroscience in these studies (Flohr, 2010;	Hodges,	2010;	Persellin,	2009).As	 a	 profession,	we	 are	 at	 the	 thresh-old	 of	 utilizing	 developing	 technology	for studying how the brain functions and analyzing	 which	 music	 teaching	 strate-gies	 are	most	 effective	 to	maximize	 our	efforts. Recent research holds the promise of a fuller understanding of the learning process, guiding music educators in the development and use of more effective teaching strategies. 0References Bengtsson,	 S.,	 Csikszentmihalyi,	 M.,	&	 Ullen,	 F.	 (2007).	 Cortical	 regions	involved in the generation of musi-cal structures during improvisation in pianists. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 19(13),	830–842.	Blood,	A.	&	Zatorre,	R.	 (2001).	 Intensely	pleasurable responses to music correlate with activity in brain regions implicated in reward and emotion. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences,	 98(20),	11,818–11,823.Braun,	 A.	 &	 Bock,	 J.	 (2007).	 Born	 to	learn:	 Early	 learning	 optimizes	 brain	function.	 In	W.	Gruhn	&	F.	Rauscher	(Eds.),	Neurosciences and music pedagogy (pp.	 27–51).	New	 York:	Nova	 Science	Publishers.Brown, J. (2004). Short-term memory. In R.	 Gregory	 (Ed.),	Oxford companion to the mind	(2nd	ed.),	(pp.	841–842).	New	York:	Oxford	University	Press.Brown,	 S.,	 Martinez,	 M.	 J.,	 &	 Parsons,	L.M.	 (2004).	 Passive	 music	 listen-ing spontaneously engages limbic and paralimbic systems. NeuroReport, 15(13),	2,033–2,037.Caine,	 G.,	 Caine,	 R.,	 McClintic,	 C.,	Klimek, K. (2005). 12 brain/mind learning principles in action. Thousand	Oaks,	CA:	Corwin	Press.Doidge,	N.	 (2007).	The brain that changes itself. New	York:	Viking-Penguin.	Flohr, J. W. (2004). Musical lives of young children.	 Upper	 Saddle	 River,	 NJ:	Prentice	Hall.	Flohr,	 J.	 W.	 (2010).	 Best	 practices	 for	young children’s music educa-tion:	 Guidance	 from	 brain	 research.	General Music Today, 23(2),	 13–19.	doi:10.1177/1048371309352344.Flohr,	 J.	 W.,	 &	 Trevarthen,	 C.	 (2008).	Music	 learning	 in	 Childhood–Early	developments of a musical brain and body.	 In	 W.	 Gruhn,	 &	 F.	 Rauscher	(Eds.),	 Neurosciences in music pedagogy (pp.	 53–99).	 Hauppage,	 New	 York:	Nova	Science	Publishers.	Flohr,	J.	W.,	&	Trollinger,	V.	(2010).	Music in elementary education. Upper	 Saddle	River,	NJ:	Prentice	Hall.	Fox,	P.,	Parsons,	L.,	&	Hodges,	D.	(1998).	Neural	 basis	 of	 the	 comprehension	 of	musical harmony, melody, and rhythm. Society for Neuroscience Abstracts,	28:	1763.Gazziniga,	M.	(ed)	(2006).	Learning,	arts,	and the brain: The Dana Consortium report,	 on	 arts	 and	 cognition.	 New	York: Dana Foundation. Haier,	R.,	&	Jung,	R.	(2008).	Brain	imag-ing of intelligence and creativity: What is the picture for education? Roeper Review,	30(20),	22–52.	Hodges,	 D.	 A.	 (2010).	 Can	 neurosci-ence help us do a better job of teaching music? General Music Today, 23(2),	3–12.	doi:10.1177/1048371309349569.Jensen,	 E.	 (2003).	 Tools for engagement: Managing emotional states for learner success. Bakersfield,	CA:	Corwin	Press.	Jossey-Bass	 (Ed.).	 (2008).	 The Jossey-Bass reader on the brain and learning. San Francisco,	CA:	Jossey-Bass	Publishing.	Medina,	J.	(2008).	Brain Rules.	Seattle,	WA:	Pear	Press.	Persellin,	D.	C.	(2009).	Brain-based	educa-tion	in	music:	A	new	science	or	science	fiction? Orff Echo,	41(3),	22–26.	Reed, S. K. (2004). Long-term memory in cognition theory and application (pp. 97–124).	Belmont:	Wadsworth.	Squire,	L.	(2004).	Memory	systems	of	the	brain:	A	Brief	history	and	current	per-spective. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory,	82	(3),	171–177.Steen, R. (2007). The evolving brain: The known and the unknown. Amhurst,	NY:	Promethus	Books.	Terry, S. (2005). Serial position effects in recall of television commercials. Journal of General Psychology	132(2):	151–164.	Turk-Browne,	 N.,	 Yi,	 D.,	 &	 Chun,	M.	 (2006).	 Linking	 implicit	 and	explicit memory: Common encod-ing factors and shared representations. Neuron, 49,	 (6)	 917–927.	 http://www.ncbi.nlm	.nih.gov/pubmed/16543138	(Retrieved	December	9,	2010.)Diane Persellin is Professor of Music Education at Trinity University and John W. Flohr is professor emeritus from Texas Woman’s University and on the fac-ulty of the Richard W. Riley College of Education and Leadership at Walden University.Comment on this article: tmea.org/features33Southwestern Musician  |  February 2011

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Applying Brain Research to Classroom Strategies

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