Linguistics, as it relates to reading, has generated much interest lately among educators. Although linguistics is not a new science, its recent focus has captured the interest of the reading specialist because both the specialist and the linguist are concerned with language

Criscuolo, Nicholas P.

English

ScholarWorks at WMU

Reading Horizons: A Journal of Literacy andLanguage ArtsVolume 10Issue 3 April 1970 Article 54-1-1970A Look At Linguistic ReadersNicholas P. CriscuoloNew Haven, Connecticut Public SchoolsFollow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/reading_horizonsPart of the Education CommonsThis Article is brought to you for free and open access by the SpecialEducation and Literacy Studies at ScholarWorks at WMU. It has beenaccepted for inclusion in Reading Horizons: A Journal of Literacy andLanguage Arts by an authorized editor of ScholarWorks at WMU. For moreinformation, please contact maira.bundza@wmich.edu.Recommended CitationCriscuolo, N. P. (1970). A Look At Linguistic Readers. Reading Horizons: A Journal of Literacy and Language Arts, 10 (3). Retrievedfrom https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/reading_horizons/vol10/iss3/5A LOOK AT LINGUISTIC READERS Nicholas P. Criscuolo NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT, PUBLIC SCHOOLS Linguistics, as it relates to reading, has generated much interest lately among educators. Although linguistics is not a new science, its recent focus has captured the interest of the reading specialist because both the specialist and the linguist are concerned with language. This surge of interest in linguistics becomes evident when one sees that a total of forty-four articles on linguistics are listed in the Education Index for July, 1965 to June, 1966. The number of articles on linguistics written for educational journals has been increasing ever SInce. This interest has been sharpened to some degree by the publi-cation of Chall's book Learning to Read: The Great Debate (1). Her finding that the code-emphasis approach yields better results in be-ginning reading stages has bolstered the cause of linguists and many school systems have begun to use linguistic readers for reading instruction. How can linguistics be related to the teaching of reading? Linguis-tics is the study of the structure of the English language and its study enables the pupil to discover how spoken language is set down in writing. The printed symbols (words) are viewed as a code and, according to the linguist, breaking the code involves analyzing the basic speech patterns of our language. In a linguistic approach, most words presented in reading are phonemic ally regular and fit a particular pattern. The assumption is that once the underlying system is discovered, it is easier to break the code. Thus the pupil spends the initial learning period on the smallest letters and learns first how to combine consonants and vowels into almost infinite numbers of three and four letter words. In order for children to perceive the phoneme-grapheme (sound-sight) relationship, the linguistic approach emphasizes the teaching of the letters of the alphabet as a beginning procedure. Since con-sonant sounds are not pronounced in isolation in normal English, the linguistic tool of presenting minimal pairs (words which differ only in one consonant or vowel) is used. Thus, a word such as fat can be easily contrasted with words such as cat and sat. Irregular words which do not follow a pattern are introduced as sight words. Since the initial emphasis is on the decoding process, illustrations which usually accompany story text are often omitted in beginning 116-rh reading materials. Some linguists feel that illustrations are too dis-tracting to the decoder. Once this process has been mastered, pictures are used and concentration is now placed on the improvement of understanding. Some confusion has existed concerning the relationship of phonics to linguistics. Although both terms have been used interchangeably at times, the linguist is quick to point out the basic difference. Ac-cording to the linguist, phonics instruction involves having young-sters learn rules in isolation which they cannot always apply when asked to figure out unknown words. This is avoided with the linguistics approach since the youngster, from his study of phonemic ally regular patterns, discovers underlying language structures in a systematic nIanner. Then, too, the problem of phonic blending is also avoided since the decoder becomes aware of the sound represented by a letter as he analyzes the difference between two similar words. Letters are not sounded in isolation and then blended to make a word. Basal readers, because they employ the look-say or whole word method, have been criticized by linguists. Their chief criticisms center around the fact that the whole word method emphasizes meaning immediately and often lacks the needed interrelationship between writing and speech. Linguistic reading materials have not, however, proven superior to the conventional basal reader. Sheldon and Lash-inger (6) conducted a study with 465 first-grade children in 21 classes which evaluated the effects of a basal reader program, a modi-fied linguistic approach, and a linguistic approach. Comparison of pre-and post-test scores revealed that no one of the three approaches was more effective in teaching beginning reading. In recent years several book companies have published linguistic readers. Some of the popular series currently in use are: the Merrill Linguistic readers, (2) the Lippincott Basic readers, (3) the S.R.A. Linguistic readers, (4) the Miami Linguistic readers, (5) 2nd the Harper & Row Linguistic readers (7). What are some of the similari-ties and differences between these readers and typical basal readers? A descriptive analysis of some of the salient features of each series is presented in Table L Analysis of Table I reveals that with the possible exception of the Lippincott Basic Reading Series (which more nearly resembles the typical basal reader), the skills development rationale has many similarities. The Merrill Linguistic readers use no illustrations to accompany story text whereas all the others do. The greatest weak-N arne of Series Basic Reading Series (Lippincott ) Linguistic Readers (Merrill) Miami Linguistic Readers (D. C. Heath) Basic Reading Series (S.R.A.) The Linguistic Readers (Harper & Row) TABLE I DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS OF FIVE LINGUISTIC READERS Skills Development Rationale Introduces short vowel sounds, then selected initial consonant sounds (not involving clusters), then dem-onstrates how letters are brought to-gether by presenting words in lists, and then in stories. Irregular words are introduced by sight method. Emphasis on the perception of min-imum contrasts in words which fit regular spelling patterns i.e. mat-fat, mat-met, etc. Words introduced in the first four readers belong to the first major set of spelling patterns: consonant-letter (s) -vowel-letter-con-sonan t letter (s ) . Presentation of sound-symbol cor-respondences introduced in spelling patterns rather than in terms of individual letter-sound correspond-ences. Language-oriented with a usage of natural speech patterns and attention to aural-oral control. Skills development follows conson-ant-vowel-consonant pattern repre-senting one-to-one correspondence between a letter and a sound. Exceptional words introduced by sight method. Vocabulary including letters which represent speech units in a pat-terned and consistent way are intro-duced in a controlled manner. Words including unpatterned speech units introduced by sight method. Illustrations and Content A ttractive cartoon-like ill us-trations in color. Multi-ethnic content employing both real-istic and fanciful stories. No illustrations. Content consists of short se-lections dealing in large pro-portion with animals. Black and white cartoon-like ill ustra tions. Stories have varied themes. Many animal stories typifying problems in moralistic fashion. Content cross-cultural. Multi-ethnic illustrations (not corresponding to text at be-ginning levels). Content varied. Attractive multi-ethnic illu-strations. Content varied and appealing. Materials Used 1 Preprimer 6 Readers Accompanying workbooks Phonics Guide My Alphabet Book Six readers and accompany-ing workbooks. 2 Big Books Readiness Book 15 Level Books 5 Plateau Levels Accompanying seatwork booklets. Alphabet Book Alphabet Wall Chart Alphabet Flash Cards Word Pattern Charts Six Readers Accom panying Workbooks Readiness Workbook 3 Preprimers 4 Readers Accompanying Workbooks Evaluation Tests for skills ma':tery in teacher's manual. Informal testing tech-niques suggested. Informal testing tech-niques suggested. Eight especially-developed tests and a manual for their use included. Informal testing tech-niques suggested. 118-rh ness in all the linguistic readers seems to be a lack of provision for evaluation of those reading skills which have been mastered by the pupil and those which have not. Other than informal techniques suggested in the teachers' manuals, a systematic program of evaluation (an extremely important part of any reading program) is not included. Although not as extensive as those found in the different basal reading series, there are several special features contained in these linguistic reader programs as well as supplementary materials avail-able for both teachers and pupils. The Lippincott series has a fairly extensive section dealing with suggestions for enrichment, a good bibliography for use of audio-visual aids as well as a list of collections of related stories and poems. The 11iami Linguistic readers also con-tain in the teachers' manuals suggestions for enrichment and many suggestions for the development of language readiness skills inasmuch as these readers were originally developed to teach reading to bilingual children enrolled in the Dade County schools in Florida. The Harper & Row Linguistic Readers publish a supplementary device called "Word-Go-Round" which is a word wheel to teach word analysis skills through linguistic principles. The S.R.A. series is accompanied by the BRS Satellites which is a boxed set of supplementary reading selections. Concluding Remarks The biggest difference between the linguistic readers and the traditional basal reader series is in the area of skills development rationale. Whereas linguistic readers employ the use of minimum con-trast and consistent patterns in developing a sense of regular sound-symbol relationships, initial vocabulary used in most basal reader systems is usually based on frequency of use rather than strictly syntactic and morphological considerations. These methodological considerations result in story content which is quite different. Here the reader will wonder if "The fat cat sat on the mat" is more appealing than "Oh, look. See baby run." The teachers' manuals which accompany linguistic readers, for the most part, are not nearly as comprehensive as those which ac-company most basic reader series. Fewer teaching suggestions are offered in the manuals of linguistic readers for enrichment and follow-up activities. Suggestions and ideas for developing comprehen-sion skills are sketchy in the linguistic manuals, as are evaluative techniques for reading skills mastery. Teachers and administrators must consider these factors when rh-119 selecting materials for reading instruction. Although the limited research which is now available does not substantiate the claim that the use of linguistic materials will yield the best results, the linguist offers some valuable information to the teachers of reading-speci-fically in the areas of phonology, dialectal influences and the acquisi-tion of language. We need to study how the existing instructional dichotomy in reading during the beginning stages can be modified. We also need to consider linguistics in its broad view and not to construe it as merely a decoding process. If greater stress is given to linguistic principles during the beginning stages of reading instruction, it might be feasible to retain some of the plausible techniques, supple-mentary materials and devices suggested in basal reading programs. An eclectic approach in the hands of an enthusiastic and linguistically-oriented teacher can prove invaluable in developing competent readers. References 1. Chall, Jeanne, Learning to Read: The Great Debate. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1967. 2. Fries, Charles C., Rosemary G. Wilson and Mildred K. Rudoph, Linguistic Readers. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill, Inc., 1966. 3. McCracken, Glenn, Charles C. Walcutt, et. aI., Basic Reading Series. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1965. 4. Rasmussen, Donald and Lynn Goldberg, Basic Reading Series. Chicago: Science Research Associates, Inc., 1965. 5. Rojas, Pauline M., project director, Miami Linguistic Readers. Boston: D. C. Heath and Company, 1966. 6. Sheldon, William D. and Donald R. Lashinger, "Effect of First-Grade Instruction Using Basal Readers, Modified Linguistic Ma-terials, and Linguistic Readers," in Research in Education. Wash-ington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, (November, 1966) p. 10. 7. Smith, Henry Lee, Jr., Jack E. Richardson and Bernard J. Weiss, The Linguistic Readers. Evanston, Illinois: Harper & Row, Pub-lishers, 1965. 

A Look At Linguistic Readers

Reading Horizons: A Journal of Literacy and 
Language Arts 
Volume 10 
Issue 3 April 1970 Article 5 
4-1-1970 
A Look At Linguistic Readers 
Nicholas P. Criscuolo 
New Haven, Connecticut Public Schools 
Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/reading_horizons 
 Part of the Education Commons 
Recommended Citation 
Criscuolo, N. P. (1970). A Look At Linguistic Readers. Reading Horizons: A Journal of Literacy and 
Language Arts, 10 (3). Retrieved from https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/reading_horizons/vol10/iss3/5 
This Article is brought to you for free and open access by 
the Special Education and Literacy Studies at 
ScholarWorks at WMU. It has been accepted for inclusion 
in Reading Horizons: A Journal of Literacy and Language 
Arts by an authorized editor of ScholarWorks at WMU. 
For more information, please contact wmu-
scholarworks@wmich.edu. 
A LOOK AT LINGUISTIC READERS 
Nicholas P. Criscuolo 
NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT, PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
Linguistics, as it relates to reading, has generated much interest 
lately among educators. Although linguistics is not a new science, 
its recent focus has captured the interest of the reading specialist 
because both the specialist and the linguist are concerned with 
language. 
This surge of interest in linguistics becomes evident when one 
sees that a total of forty-four articles on linguistics are listed in the 
Education Index for July, 1965 to June, 1966. The number of articles 
on linguistics written for educational journals has been increasing 
ever SInce. 
This interest has been sharpened to some degree by the publi-
cation of Chall's book Learning to Read: The Great Debate (1). Her 
finding that the code-emphasis approach yields better results in be-
ginning reading stages has bolstered the cause of linguists and many 
school systems have begun to use linguistic readers for reading 
instruction. 
How can linguistics be related to the teaching of reading? Linguis-
tics is the study of the structure of the English language and its study 
enables the pupil to discover how spoken language is set down in 
writing. The printed symbols (words) are viewed as a code and, 
according to the linguist, breaking the code involves analyzing the 
basic speech patterns of our language. 
In a linguistic approach, most words presented in reading are 
phonemic ally regular and fit a particular pattern. The assumption is 
that once the underlying system is discovered, it is easier to break 
the code. Thus the pupil spends the initial learning period on the 
smallest letters and learns first how to combine consonants and vowels 
into almost infinite numbers of three and four letter words. 
In order for children to perceive the phoneme-grapheme (sound-
sight) relationship, the linguistic approach emphasizes the teaching 
of the letters of the alphabet as a beginning procedure. Since con-
sonant sounds are not pronounced in isolation in normal English, 
the linguistic tool of presenting minimal pairs (words which differ 
only in one consonant or vowel) is used. Thus, a word such as fat 
can be easily contrasted with words such as cat and sat. Irregular 
words which do not follow a pattern are introduced as sight words. 
Since the initial emphasis is on the decoding process, illustrations 
which usually accompany story text are often omitted in beginning 
116-rh 
reading materials. Some linguists feel that illustrations are too dis-
tracting to the decoder. Once this process has been mastered, pictures 
are used and concentration is now placed on the improvement of 
understanding. 
Some confusion has existed concerning the relationship of phonics 
to linguistics. Although both terms have been used interchangeably 
at times, the linguist is quick to point out the basic difference. Ac-
cording to the linguist, phonics instruction involves having young-
sters learn rules in isolation which they cannot always apply when 
asked to figure out unknown words. This is avoided with the linguistics 
approach since the youngster, from his study of phonemic ally regular 
patterns, discovers underlying language structures in a systematic 
nIanner. 
Then, too, the problem of phonic blending is also avoided since 
the decoder becomes aware of the sound represented by a letter as 
he analyzes the difference between two similar words. Letters are 
not sounded in isolation and then blended to make a word. 
Basal readers, because they employ the look-say or whole word 
method, have been criticized by linguists. Their chief criticisms center 
around the fact that the whole word method emphasizes meaning 
immediately and often lacks the needed interrelationship between 
writing and speech. Linguistic reading materials have not, however, 
proven superior to the conventional basal reader. Sheldon and Lash-
inger (6) conducted a study with 465 first-grade children in 21 
classes which evaluated the effects of a basal reader program, a modi-
fied linguistic approach, and a linguistic approach. Comparison of 
pre-and post-test scores revealed that no one of the three approaches 
was more effective in teaching beginning reading. 
In recent years several book companies have published linguistic 
readers. Some of the popular series currently in use are: the Merrill 
Linguistic readers, (2) the Lippincott Basic readers, (3) the S.R.A. 
Linguistic readers, (4) the Miami Linguistic readers, (5) 2nd the 
Harper & Row Linguistic readers (7). What are some of the similari-
ties and differences between these readers and typical basal readers? 
A descriptive analysis of some of the salient features of each series 
is presented in Table L 
Analysis of Table I reveals that with the possible exception of 
the Lippincott Basic Reading Series (which more nearly resembles 
the typical basal reader), the skills development rationale has many 
similarities. The Merrill Linguistic readers use no illustrations to 
accompany story text whereas all the others do. The greatest weak-
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15
 
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5 
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 s
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bo
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. 
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k 
A
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W
al
l 
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rt
 
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 p
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 W
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s 
W
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3 
P
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p
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m
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s 
4 
R
ea
d
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s 
A
cc
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m
p
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 W
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b
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s 
E
v
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T
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ts
 f
o
r 
sk
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ls
 m
a'
:t
er
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in
 t
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ch
er
's
 m
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. 
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fo
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te
st
in
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te
ch
-
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te
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su
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d.
 
118-rh 
ness in all the linguistic readers seems to be a lack of provision for 
evaluation of those reading skills which have been mastered by the 
pupil and those which have not. Other than informal techniques 
suggested in the teachers' manuals, a systematic program of evaluation 
(an extremely important part of any reading program) is not included. 
Although not as extensive as those found in the different basal 
reading series, there are several special features contained in these 
linguistic reader programs as well as supplementary materials avail-
able for both teachers and pupils. The Lippincott series has a fairly 
extensive section dealing with suggestions for enrichment, a good 
bibliography for use of audio-visual aids as well as a list of collections 
of related stories and poems. The 11iami Linguistic readers also con-
tain in the teachers' manuals suggestions for enrichment and many 
suggestions for the development of language readiness skills inasmuch 
as these readers were originally developed to teach reading to bilingual 
children enrolled in the Dade County schools in Florida. The Harper 
& Row Linguistic Readers publish a supplementary device called 
"Word-Go-Round" which is a word wheel to teach word analysis 
skills through linguistic principles. The S.R.A. series is accompanied 
by the BRS Satellites which is a boxed set of supplementary reading 
selections. 
Concluding Remarks 
The biggest difference between the linguistic readers and the 
traditional basal reader series is in the area of skills development 
rationale. Whereas linguistic readers employ the use of minimum con-
trast and consistent patterns in developing a sense of regular sound-
symbol relationships, initial vocabulary used in most basal reader 
systems is usually based on frequency of use rather than strictly 
syntactic and morphological considerations. These methodological 
considerations result in story content which is quite different. Here 
the reader will wonder if "The fat cat sat on the mat" is more 
appealing than "Oh, look. See baby run." 
The teachers' manuals which accompany linguistic readers, for 
the most part, are not nearly as comprehensive as those which ac-
company most basic reader series. Fewer teaching suggestions are 
offered in the manuals of linguistic readers for enrichment and 
follow-up activities. Suggestions and ideas for developing comprehen-
sion skills are sketchy in the linguistic manuals, as are evaluative 
techniques for reading skills mastery. 
Teachers and administrators must consider these factors when 
rh-119 
selecting materials for reading instruction. Although the limited 
research which is now available does not substantiate the claim that 
the use of linguistic materials will yield the best results, the linguist 
offers some valuable information to the teachers of reading-speci-
fically in the areas of phonology, dialectal influences and the acquisi-
tion of language. 
We need to study how the existing instructional dichotomy in 
reading during the beginning stages can be modified. We also need 
to consider linguistics in its broad view and not to construe it as 
merely a decoding process. If greater stress is given to linguistic 
principles during the beginning stages of reading instruction, it 
might be feasible to retain some of the plausible techniques, supple-
mentary materials and devices suggested in basal reading programs. 
An eclectic approach in the hands of an enthusiastic and linguistically-
oriented teacher can prove invaluable in developing competent 
readers. 
References 
1. Chall, Jeanne, Learning to Read: The Great Debate. New York: 
McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1967. 
2. Fries, Charles C., Rosemary G. Wilson and Mildred K. Rudoph, 
Linguistic Readers. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill, Inc., 
1966. 
3. McCracken, Glenn, Charles C. Walcutt, et. aI., Basic Reading 
Series. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1965. 
4. Rasmussen, Donald and Lynn Goldberg, Basic Reading Series. 
Chicago: Science Research Associates, Inc., 1965. 
5. Rojas, Pauline M., project director, Miami Linguistic Readers. 
Boston: D. C. Heath and Company, 1966. 
6. Sheldon, William D. and Donald R. Lashinger, "Effect of First-
Grade Instruction Using Basal Readers, Modified Linguistic Ma-
terials, and Linguistic Readers," in Research in Education. Wash-
ington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, (November, 
1966) p. 10. 
7. Smith, Henry Lee, Jr., Jack E. Richardson and Bernard J. Weiss, 
The Linguistic Readers. Evanston, Illinois: Harper & Row, Pub-
lishers, 1965. 


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A Look At Linguistic Readers

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