Objective: Sleep disturbance and excessive daytime sleepiness have been reported in patients

with hepatic cirrhosis. The objective of this study was to evaluate daytime somnolence and

sleep complaints in a group of 178 patients with cirrhosis compared to a control group.

Method: Sleep features and excessive daytime sleepiness were evaluated by the Basic Nordic

Sleep Questionnaire (BNSQ) and the Epworth Sleepiness Scale (ESS). We collected clinical

and laboratory data, neurological assessment and EEG recording in cirrhotic patients.

Results: Patients with cirrhosis complained of more daytime sleepiness (p<0.005), sleeping

badly at least three times a week (p<0.005), difficulties falling asleep (p<0.01) and frequent

nocturnal awakening (p<0.005) than controls. We found a poor correlation between sleep

disorders and clinical or laboratory parameters. Conclusion: Our results confirm previous

literature reports suggesting a high prevalence of sleep disturbance in patients with cirrhosis.

Insomnia and daytime sleepiness are the main complaints. Sleep disorders are probably a

multifactorial phenomenon

Baldi Antognini, Alessandro

Cirignotta, Fabio

Ferlisi, Monica

Mondini, Susanna

Morelli, Cristina

Mostacci, Barbara

Sama, Claudia

English

AMS Acta - Alm@DL - Università di Bologna

  
1 
Sleep Disturbance and Daytime Sleepiness in Patients with Cirrhosis: a 
Case Control Study 
Barbara Mostacci¹, Monica Ferlisi¹,  Alessandro Baldi Antognini², Claudia Sama³, Cristina 
Morelli³, Susanna Mondini¹, Fabio Cirignotta¹°, 
¹Unit of Neurology,  ³Dept of Internal Medicine , S.Orsola-Malpighi Hospital, University of 
Bologna, Italy    ² Dept of Statistical Sciences, University of Bologna, Italy 
 
 
 
Author ‘s address : prof. Fabio Cirignotta   UO Neurologia   , Policlinico S.Orsola-
Malpighi , via Albertoni 15 , 40138 Bologna    tel. +39 051 6262589   fax +39 
05163562640  e-mail  fabio.cirignotta@aosp.bo.it  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
                                                 
°
 Correspondence: Prof. Fabio Cirignotta, UO Neurologia, Policlinico S. Orsola-Malpighi, Via Albertoni 15, 
40138 Bologna, Italy. Email: fabio.cirignotta@aosp.bo.it  Fax: (0039)0516362640 
  
2 
 
Abstract:  
Objective: Sleep disturbance and excessive daytime sleepiness have been reported in patients 
with hepatic cirrhosis. The objective of this study was to evaluate daytime somnolence and 
sleep complaints in a group of 178 patients with cirrhosis compared to a control group. 
Method: Sleep features and excessive daytime sleepiness were evaluated by the Basic Nordic 
Sleep Questionnaire (BNSQ) and the Epworth Sleepiness Scale (ESS). We collected clinical 
and laboratory data, neurological assessment and EEG recording in cirrhotic patients. 
Results: Patients with cirrhosis complained of more daytime sleepiness (p<0.005), sleeping 
badly at least three times a week (p<0.005), difficulties falling asleep (p<0.01) and frequent 
nocturnal awakening (p<0.005) than controls. We found a poor correlation between sleep 
disorders and clinical or laboratory parameters. Conclusion: Our results confirm previous 
literature reports suggesting a high prevalence of sleep disturbance in patients with cirrhosis. 
Insomnia and daytime sleepiness are the main complaints. Sleep disorders are probably a 
multifactorial phenomenon. 
 
Key words: liver cirrhosis, insomnia, daytime somnolence. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  
3 
 
Introduction 
Sleep disturbance and excessive daytime somnolence are common in patients with cirrhosis 
[1, 2, 3, 4]. In addition, a disturbance of sleep is recognized as one of the early signs of 
hepatic encephalopathy [5, 6, 7]. Reversal of sleep rhythm, drowsiness and lethargy are 
classic signs of this disease, and their presence and entity are used to define the clinical stages 
of hepatic encephalopathy [8, 9, 10, 11].  
The most common feature of the sleep pattern in patients with cirrhosis is fragmented 
nocturnal sleep caused by frequent nocturnal awakenings, and a daytime functioning affected 
by frequent episodes of undesired sleepiness and more prolonged napping time [1, 2]. The 
sleep-wake cycle was also shifted with activity toward the later hours of the day. This was 
ascribed to the displacement toward later hours in the 24-hour profile of plasma melatonin, 
common in cirrhosis [12]. However, the existence of a phase delay in cirrhotic patients and its 
relation with the melatonin rhythm remains controversial [13]. In addition, few data showed a 
correlation between sleep impairment and the clinical parameters of liver disease. There are 
limited data on the true prevalence of sleep disturbance in cirrhotic patients compared with a 
control group. 
For these reasons, we conducted a case control study to assess the prevalence and 
characteristics of sleep disturbance and excessive daytime sleepiness in patients with cirrhosis 
compared with a sex and age matched non-cirrhotic population, and to determine their 
correlation with clinical parameters. 
 
 
 
 
  
4 
Materials and methods 
Participants 
Patients with cirrhosis. We studied a consecutive series of 178 patients with hepatic cirrhosis. 
All patients with a diagnosis of liver cirrhosis not alcohol related seen at our Neurology Unit 
were invited to participate in this study. Patients were referred to our Unit either for 
neurological screening for orthotopic liver transplantation (112 patients) or for any 
neurological complaint (including hepatic encephalopathy). Patients with post-alcoholic 
cirrhosis were excluded due to the possible independent influence of ethanol on the central 
nervous system and quality of sleep. 
One hundred and fifteen males and sixty-three females, whose mean age was 52.12 years                 
(ranging from 17 to 71 years) were enrolled. 
The diagnosis of cirrhosis was based on a compatible clinical history, radiological studies, 
and liver biopsy when available. 
At the time of evaluation, 23.5% were Child-Pugh class A patients, 48.2% class B and 28.3% 
class C. The aetiology of cirrhosis was viral hepatitis in 78.6% (HBV 18.5%; HCV 53.4%; 
HBV+HCV 6.7%), autoimmune disease in 9% and diverse causes in 11.4%. 24.2% of patients 
referred past episodes of hepatic encephalopathy, 6.2% had current minimal hepatic 
encephalopathy and 68% had never had episodes of encephalopathy. 136 patients were on the 
list for orthotopic liver transplantation. 
Healthy controls. A control group was selected from healthy subjects, mostly blood donors at 
our hospital and employees from our institution. The group included 178 individuals sex and 
age matched with the cirrhotic patients (+/- 1 year). Mean age of normal controls was 52.06 
years (ranging from 17 to 72 years). 
The study was conducted according to the principles established in Helsinki and approved by 
the local ethical committee. 
  
5 
 
 
Procedures 
Neurological assessment. A complete neurological assessment was performed in all patients 
with cirrhosis. One-hundred-thirteen patients underwent EEG recording. 
Sleep Evaluation. All patients with cirrhosis were assessed by a sleep specialist with a semi-
structured 20 minute interview on their sleep habits and complaints. All subjects were 
administered two standardised questionnaires: the Basic Nordic Sleep Questionnaire (BNSQ) 
and the Epworth Sleepiness Scale (ESS).  
The BNSQ comprises 22 questions investigating sleep habits and complaints of insomnia, 
difficulty falling asleep, night awakenings, early morning awakening, use of hypnotic drugs, 
napping habits, daytime sleepiness, snoring and sleep apnoea [14]. 
We added two questions to better define the severity of daytime sleepiness and the 
circumstance in which sleepiness occurred. The questions added were: “Do you feel 
excessively sleepy during the daytime?” 1-never 2-sometimes after lunch 3-often or always 
after lunch 4-even at other times of the day 5-throughout the day; and “Sleepiness is” 1-absent 
2-slight 3-moderate 4-severe 5-very severe. Most of the questions ask for the frequency of the 
symptom (never or less than once per month, less than once per week, on 1-2 days per week, 
on 3-5 days per week, daily or almost daily), other than the severity of the symptom. 
The ESS is a standardised scale scoring the level of daytime sleepiness by rating the chance 
the subject would doze off in eight different real-life situations [15]. The questionnaires were 
administered by a physician. 
All subjects were classified on the basis of their answers to the BNSQ questions as Sleepy (S) 
if they complained of excessive daytime sleepiness, at least moderate and not only in the 
postprandial hours at least three times a week, Postprandial Sleepy (PS) if they complained of 
  
6 
excessive daytime sleepiness at least moderate only after lunch at least three times a week, or 
Not Sleepy (NS) if they did not fit these conditions. Subjects were classified as Insomniacs if 
they reported sleeping badly or rather badly at least three times a week. 
Clinical and laboratory data. We included in the database information on education, 
employment, routine biochemistry, including albumin and serum bilirubin, prothrombin 
activity, cholesterol, alkaline phosphatase, blood ammonia, transaminase, γ-glutamyl 
transpeptidase, γ-globulins, serum triglyceride level, α-fetoprotein, blood nitrogen and current 
therapy. We also investigated the presence and severity of ascites, episodes of 
encephalopathy, gastrointestinal bleeding and jaundice. 
 
Statistical Analysis 
We used t test, variance analysis (ANOVA), Wilcoxon and Mann-Whitney test. Data were 
analysed by the McNemar test. We related all questionnaire answers to blood ammonia value 
with Pearson’s correlation. 
 
Results 
Patients with cirrhosis showed a significantly higher prevalence of sleep disturbance than the 
healthy control group. 
Twenty-six per cent of patients complained of sleeping badly or almost badly at least three 
times a week (“insomniacs”), whereas this complaint was infrequent in the healthy subjects 
(7.9%) (p<0.005).  
Patients with cirrhosis complaining of “insomnia” reported more often both difficulty 
initiating and maintaining sleep but they also differed from “non–insomniac” patients with 
cirrhosis for a higher prevalence of daytime sleepiness (p<0.001) and more frequent naps 
  
7 
(p<0.01). No difference was observed between groups regarding early morning awakening 
and snoring.  
Patients with cirrhosis showed a significantly higher prevalence of daytime sleepiness 
(p<0.005): 18.5% were classified as Sleepy (vs. 3.9% of controls), 30.9% referred 
Postprandial Sleepiness (vs. 18.5% of controls) and 50.6% were classified as Not Sleepy 
(vs.77.5% of controls).  
Among patients with cirrhosis 55% referred habitual naps vs. 23% of healthy controls; the 
patients with cirrhosis reported more prolonged napping tim. (table 1). Among cirrhotic 
patients, the Sleepy group showed worsening parameters of nocturnal sleep quality, like 
nocturnal awakening (p<0.05), difficulties falling asleep (p<0.05), complaint of sleeping 
badly or almost badly at least three times a week (p<0.005) and referred sleep apnea (p<0.05).  
Patients with cirrhosis had a mean ESS score of 6.66 (vs. 6.17 in healthy controls), and 15.7% 
of them had a score higher than 10 (vs. 12.9% in healthy controls), but the difference was not 
statistically significant. The patients  with the highest scores, although not pathological, were 
patients complaining of “insomnia”. Among patients with cirrhosis those with current 
minimal hepatic encephalopathy  were more frequently “sleepy”  (p<0.005) and  “insomniac” 
(p<0.05) . 
 
 
Table 1 Characteristics of sleep among groups 
 
 
No significantly difference was observed between Sleepy and Postprandial or Not Sleepy 
cirrhotic patients with regard to Child-Pugh score, development of ascites, aetiology of 
cirrhosis, previous encephalopathy and routine biochemistry. The mean value of blood 
  
8 
ammonia was 61.79 mcg/dl in Postprandial and Not Sleepy, and 76.88 in Sleepy patients, but 
the difference was not significant (ANOVA). We tried to divide patients into two groups, 
according to pathological or normal blood ammonia value (≤ or > 80 mcg/dl), and the two 
groups were compared according to parameters of sleep habits: they did not show significant 
differences. Moreover, blood ammonia value did not show any significant correlation with 
parameters of sleep quality. 
Bedtime and wake-up time of patients with cirrhosis and healthy controls were similar (mean 
value of bedtime in cirrhotics: 23.16 vs. controls: 23.53; mean value of wake-up time in 
cirrhotics: 7.46 vs. controls: 7.36). Even comparing cirrhotic patients with sleep disturbance 
and those without, these parameters did not differ between groups (mean value of bedtime 
and wake-up time in insomniac cirrhotic group: 23.07 and 7.18; in non-insomniac cirrhotic 
group: 23.19 and 7.15).  
 
Discussion 
Our study confirms that patients with cirrhosis frequently have sleep disorders. We found a 
significantly higher prevalence of parameters of poor sleep quality, like difficulties falling 
asleep, nocturnal awakenings and complaints of sleeping badly in patients with cirrhosis than 
in healthy controls. In addition, daytime functioning of these patients was affected by 
excessive sleepiness and more prolonged napping time. A higher prevalence of daytime 
sleepiness  disclosed by the BNSQ questionnaire was not accompanied by a significant 
different in the Epworth Sleepiness Scale (ESS). This may be because the ESS, validated in 
narcoleptics and OSAS patients, is not sufficiently accurate in estimating sleepiness in an 
inactive population like patients with cirrhosis [16]. As reported in previous studies, we found 
a poor correlation between clinical and laboratory parameters and sleep disturbance or 
daytime somnolence [17, 18]. We did not find a phase delay in the sleep patterns of patients 
  
9 
with cirrhosis, although the sleep questionnaire we used is not an accurate tool to identify 
circadian abnormalities.  
Another limitation of our study is the difficulty defining and estimating sleepiness on the 
basis of subjective patient evaluation. The first problem is to distinguish sleepiness from 
common symptoms in cirrhosis, like fatigue, tiredness and lack of energy. 
Sleepiness could also be linked to the limitations of a chronic disease forcing subjects to lead 
very sedentary lives, thereby increasing the risk of episodes of undesired sleepiness. In 
addition, the frequent nocturnal awakenings could be related to more episodes of nicturia 
because of diuretic treatment. In this regard, another limitation in our study is the lack of a 
control group with another chronic disease (e.g. chronic renal failure). Sleep difficulty  in 
patients with cirrhosis could be related to a specific dysregulation of the histamine 
neurotrasmitter system ( 19,20), and a comparison with other chronic diseases could yield 
information useful to estimate the real impact of hepatic failure on the sleep pattern and its 
pathogenesis. 
Snoring and reported apnoeas did not significantly differ from healthy controls. However, the 
finding that snoring was more common in “sleepy” than in “post-prandial sleepy” and “not 
sleepy” patients with cirrhosis in our cohort could strengthen the hypothesis that somnolence 
in cirrhotic patients is favoured at least in part by an obstructive apnoea syndrome during 
sleep ( 21,22,23) .   
 
 
 
 
 
 
  
10 
References 
1. Cordoba J, Cabrera J, Lataif L, Penev P, Zee P, Blei A. T. High prevalence of sleep disturbance in 
cirrhosis. Hepatology 1998;27(2):339-345. 
2 .Bergonzi P, Bianco A, Mazza S, Mennuni G. Night sleep organization in patients with severe 
hepatic failure. Eur Neurol 1978;17:271-275. 
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Marksteiner J, et al. Multidimensional assessment of neuro-psychiatric symptoms in patients with low-
grade hepatic encephalopathy: a clinical rating scale. World J Gastroenterol 2005;11(37):5893-8. 
4. Newton JL, Gibson GJ, Tomlinson M, Wilton K, Jones D. Fatigue in primary biliary cirrhosis is 
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5. Velissaris D, Solomou E, Kalogeropoulos A, Georgiopoulou V, Thomopoulos C, Karatza C. Sleep 
disorders and brain MRI as early indicators of subclinical hepatic encephalopathy. 
Hepatogastroenterology 2006;53(67):51-4. 
6. Martino ME, Romero-Vives M, Fernandez-Lorente J, De Vicente E, Barcena R, Gaztelu JM. Sleep 
electroencephalogram alterations disclose initial stage of encephalopathy. Methods Find Exp Clin 
Pharmacol 2002;24 (Suppl):119-22. 
7. Lewis M, Howdle PD. The neurology of liver failure. Q J Med 2003;96:623-633. 
8. Jones EA, Weissenborn K. Neurology and the liver. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1997;63:279-
293. 
9. Blei AT, Cordoba J, et al. Hepatic encephalopathy. The American Journal of Gastroenterology 
2001;96(7): 1968-1975. 
10. Sherlock S, Summerskill WHJ, White LP, Phear EA. Portal-systemic encephalopathy; 
neurological complications of liver disease. The Lancet 1954;267(6836):454-457. 
11. Ortiz M, Jacas C, Cordoba J. Minimal hepatic encephalopathy: diagnosis, clinical significance and 
recommendations. J Hepatol 2005;42(Suppl 1):S45-53. 
12. Steindl PE, Finn B, Bendok B, Rothke S, Zee PC, Blei AT. Disruption of the diurnal rhythm of 
plasma melatonin in cirrhosis. Ann Internal Med 1995;123:274-277. 
  
11 
13. Hourmand-Ollivier I, Piquet MA, Toudic JP, Denise P, Dao T. Actigraphy: A new diagnostic tool 
for hepatic encephalopathy. World J Gastroenterol 2006;12(14):2243-2244. 
14. Partinem M, Gislason T. Basic North Sleep Questionnaire (BNSQ): a quantitated measure of 
subjective sleep complaints. Sleep Res 1995;4(S1):150-155. 
15. Johns MW. A new method for measuring daytime sleepiness: the Epworth sleepiness scale. Sleep 
1991;14: 540-545. 
16. Vignatelli L, Mattarozzi K, Zanatta C, Stracciari A. Cognitive function and Epworth Sleepiness 
Scale in minimal hepatic encephalopathy. European Journal of Neurology2001;8(4):369. 
17. Kurtz D, Zenglein JP, Imler M, Girardel M, Greenspan G, Peter B, Rohmer F. Etude du sommeil 
nocturne au cours de l’encephalopathie porto-cave. Electroenceph Clin Neurophisiol 1972 ;33:167-
178. 
18. Baldy-Moulinier M, Besset A, Calvet B, Michel H.  Etude polygraphique nycthemerale des 
endormissement et des reveils au cours des encephalopathies hepatiques. Rev Electroenceph 
Neurophisiol Clin 1981;11:123-132. 
19 Lozeva V,Tuomisto L, Tarhanen J, Butterworth RF .Increased concentrations of histamine and its  
metabolite,telemethylistamine and down-regulation of histamine H3 receptor sites in autopsied brain 
tissue from cirrhotic patients who died in hepatic coma . J Hepatol 2003, 39(4) :522-7 
20 Spahr L, Coeytaux MD, Giostra E, Hadengue A, Annoni JM  . Histamine H1 blocker hydroxyzine 
improves sleep in patients with cirrhosis and minimal hepatic encephalopathy : a randomized 
controlled pilot trial. Am J Gastroenterol  2007, 102:744-753 ). 
21 . Crespo J, Cifrian J, Pinto JA, Jimenez –Gomez A, Pons Romero F. Sleep apnea obstructive 
syndrome : a new complication previously underscribed  in cirrhotic patients with ascites . Am J 
Gastroenterol  2003 , 98 : 2815-16  
22. Ogata T, Nomura M, Nakaya Y, S.Ito . Evaluation of episodes of sleep apnea in patients with liver 
cirrhosis . The journal of medical investigation 2006 , 53 : 159-166 
23. Nikaina I, Pastaka C, Zachou K, Dalekos GN, Gourgoulianis K. Sleep apnea syndrome and early 
stage cirrhosis : a pilot study  . Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2006, 18 (1) :31-5  
  
12 
 
 
 
Table 1 Characteristics of sleep among groups 
 
 Cirrhotic Patients Healthy Controls P 
Sleepy  (%) 
Post-prandial Sleepy (%) 
Not Sleepy (%) 
18.5 
30.9 
50.6 
3.9 
18.5 
77.5 
0.005 
“Insomnias “(%) 26 7.9 0.005 
Difficulty falling asleep 
(%) 
21 8.5 0.01 
Night Awakening (%) 71 43 0.005 
Early awakening (%) 15 12 n.s. 
Hypnotics (%) 4.5 2.3 n.s. 
Morning sleepiness (%) 19 12 n.s. 
Sleep attacks (%) 6.8 3.4 n.s. 
Total sleep time (min) 450 442 n.s. 
Snoring (%) 26 35 n.s. 
Referred sleep apnea (%) 4.1 5.4 n.s. 
NAP (%) 
Duration ( min)  
55 
38.8 
23 
26.9 
0.005 
0.05 
 
 


Sleep Disturbance and Daytime Sleepiness in Patients with Cirrhosis: a Case Control Study

AMS Acta

  1 Sleep Disturbance and Daytime Sleepiness in Patients with Cirrhosis: a Case Control Study Barbara Mostacci¹, Monica Ferlisi¹,  Alessandro Baldi Antognini², Claudia Sama³, Cristina Morelli³, Susanna Mondini¹, Fabio Cirignotta¹°, ¹Unit of Neurology,  ³Dept of Internal Medicine , S.Orsola-Malpighi Hospital, University of Bologna, Italy    ² Dept of Statistical Sciences, University of Bologna, Italy    Author ‘s address : prof. Fabio Cirignotta   UO Neurologia   , Policlinico S.Orsola-Malpighi , via Albertoni 15 , 40138 Bologna    tel. +39 051 6262589   fax +39 05163562640  e-mail  fabio.cirignotta@aosp.bo.it                                                             ° Correspondence: Prof. Fabio Cirignotta, UO Neurologia, Policlinico S. Orsola-Malpighi, Via Albertoni 15, 40138 Bologna, Italy. Email: fabio.cirignotta@aosp.bo.it  Fax: (0039)0516362640   2  Abstract:  Objective: Sleep disturbance and excessive daytime sleepiness have been reported in patients with hepatic cirrhosis. The objective of this study was to evaluate daytime somnolence and sleep complaints in a group of 178 patients with cirrhosis compared to a control group. Method: Sleep features and excessive daytime sleepiness were evaluated by the Basic Nordic Sleep Questionnaire (BNSQ) and the Epworth Sleepiness Scale (ESS). We collected clinical and laboratory data, neurological assessment and EEG recording in cirrhotic patients. Results: Patients with cirrhosis complained of more daytime sleepiness (p<0.005), sleeping badly at least three times a week (p<0.005), difficulties falling asleep (p<0.01) and frequent nocturnal awakening (p<0.005) than controls. We found a poor correlation between sleep disorders and clinical or laboratory parameters. Conclusion: Our results confirm previous literature reports suggesting a high prevalence of sleep disturbance in patients with cirrhosis. Insomnia and daytime sleepiness are the main complaints. Sleep disorders are probably a multifactorial phenomenon.  Key words: liver cirrhosis, insomnia, daytime somnolence.           3  Introduction Sleep disturbance and excessive daytime somnolence are common in patients with cirrhosis [1, 2, 3, 4]. In addition, a disturbance of sleep is recognized as one of the early signs of hepatic encephalopathy [5, 6, 7]. Reversal of sleep rhythm, drowsiness and lethargy are classic signs of this disease, and their presence and entity are used to define the clinical stages of hepatic encephalopathy [8, 9, 10, 11].  The most common feature of the sleep pattern in patients with cirrhosis is fragmented nocturnal sleep caused by frequent nocturnal awakenings, and a daytime functioning affected by frequent episodes of undesired sleepiness and more prolonged napping time [1, 2]. The sleep-wake cycle was also shifted with activity toward the later hours of the day. This was ascribed to the displacement toward later hours in the 24-hour profile of plasma melatonin, common in cirrhosis [12]. However, the existence of a phase delay in cirrhotic patients and its relation with the melatonin rhythm remains controversial [13]. In addition, few data showed a correlation between sleep impairment and the clinical parameters of liver disease. There are limited data on the true prevalence of sleep disturbance in cirrhotic patients compared with a control group. For these reasons, we conducted a case control study to assess the prevalence and characteristics of sleep disturbance and excessive daytime sleepiness in patients with cirrhosis compared with a sex and age matched non-cirrhotic population, and to determine their correlation with clinical parameters.       4 Materials and methods Participants Patients with cirrhosis. We studied a consecutive series of 178 patients with hepatic cirrhosis. All patients with a diagnosis of liver cirrhosis not alcohol related seen at our Neurology Unit were invited to participate in this study. Patients were referred to our Unit either for neurological screening for orthotopic liver transplantation (112 patients) or for any neurological complaint (including hepatic encephalopathy). Patients with post-alcoholic cirrhosis were excluded due to the possible independent influence of ethanol on the central nervous system and quality of sleep. One hundred and fifteen males and sixty-three females, whose mean age was 52.12 years                 (ranging from 17 to 71 years) were enrolled. The diagnosis of cirrhosis was based on a compatible clinical history, radiological studies, and liver biopsy when available. At the time of evaluation, 23.5% were Child-Pugh class A patients, 48.2% class B and 28.3% class C. The aetiology of cirrhosis was viral hepatitis in 78.6% (HBV 18.5%; HCV 53.4%; HBV+HCV 6.7%), autoimmune disease in 9% and diverse causes in 11.4%. 24.2% of patients referred past episodes of hepatic encephalopathy, 6.2% had current minimal hepatic encephalopathy and 68% had never had episodes of encephalopathy. 136 patients were on the list for orthotopic liver transplantation. Healthy controls. A control group was selected from healthy subjects, mostly blood donors at our hospital and employees from our institution. The group included 178 individuals sex and age matched with the cirrhotic patients (+/- 1 year). Mean age of normal controls was 52.06 years (ranging from 17 to 72 years). The study was conducted according to the principles established in Helsinki and approved by the local ethical committee.   5   Procedures Neurological assessment. A complete neurological assessment was performed in all patients with cirrhosis. One-hundred-thirteen patients underwent EEG recording. Sleep Evaluation. All patients with cirrhosis were assessed by a sleep specialist with a semi-structured 20 minute interview on their sleep habits and complaints. All subjects were administered two standardised questionnaires: the Basic Nordic Sleep Questionnaire (BNSQ) and the Epworth Sleepiness Scale (ESS).  The BNSQ comprises 22 questions investigating sleep habits and complaints of insomnia, difficulty falling asleep, night awakenings, early morning awakening, use of hypnotic drugs, napping habits, daytime sleepiness, snoring and sleep apnoea [14]. We added two questions to better define the severity of daytime sleepiness and the circumstance in which sleepiness occurred. The questions added were: “Do you feel excessively sleepy during the daytime?” 1-never 2-sometimes after lunch 3-often or always after lunch 4-even at other times of the day 5-throughout the day; and “Sleepiness is” 1-absent 2-slight 3-moderate 4-severe 5-very severe. Most of the questions ask for the frequency of the symptom (never or less than once per month, less than once per week, on 1-2 days per week, on 3-5 days per week, daily or almost daily), other than the severity of the symptom. The ESS is a standardised scale scoring the level of daytime sleepiness by rating the chance the subject would doze off in eight different real-life situations [15]. The questionnaires were administered by a physician. All subjects were classified on the basis of their answers to the BNSQ questions as Sleepy (S) if they complained of excessive daytime sleepiness, at least moderate and not only in the postprandial hours at least three times a week, Postprandial Sleepy (PS) if they complained of   6 excessive daytime sleepiness at least moderate only after lunch at least three times a week, or Not Sleepy (NS) if they did not fit these conditions. Subjects were classified as Insomniacs if they reported sleeping badly or rather badly at least three times a week. Clinical and laboratory data. We included in the database information on education, employment, routine biochemistry, including albumin and serum bilirubin, prothrombin activity, cholesterol, alkaline phosphatase, blood ammonia, transaminase, γ-glutamyl transpeptidase, γ-globulins, serum triglyceride level, α-fetoprotein, blood nitrogen and current therapy. We also investigated the presence and severity of ascites, episodes of encephalopathy, gastrointestinal bleeding and jaundice.  Statistical Analysis We used t test, variance analysis (ANOVA), Wilcoxon and Mann-Whitney test. Data were analysed by the McNemar test. We related all questionnaire answers to blood ammonia value with Pearson’s correlation.  Results Patients with cirrhosis showed a significantly higher prevalence of sleep disturbance than the healthy control group. Twenty-six per cent of patients complained of sleeping badly or almost badly at least three times a week (“insomniacs”), whereas this complaint was infrequent in the healthy subjects (7.9%) (p<0.005).  Patients with cirrhosis complaining of “insomnia” reported more often both difficulty initiating and maintaining sleep but they also differed from “non–insomniac” patients with cirrhosis for a higher prevalence of daytime sleepiness (p<0.001) and more frequent naps   7 (p<0.01). No difference was observed between groups regarding early morning awakening and snoring.  Patients with cirrhosis showed a significantly higher prevalence of daytime sleepiness (p<0.005): 18.5% were classified as Sleepy (vs. 3.9% of controls), 30.9% referred Postprandial Sleepiness (vs. 18.5% of controls) and 50.6% were classified as Not Sleepy (vs.77.5% of controls).  Among patients with cirrhosis 55% referred habitual naps vs. 23% of healthy controls; the patients with cirrhosis reported more prolonged napping tim. (table 1). Among cirrhotic patients, the Sleepy group showed worsening parameters of nocturnal sleep quality, like nocturnal awakening (p<0.05), difficulties falling asleep (p<0.05), complaint of sleeping badly or almost badly at least three times a week (p<0.005) and referred sleep apnea (p<0.05).  Patients with cirrhosis had a mean ESS score of 6.66 (vs. 6.17 in healthy controls), and 15.7% of them had a score higher than 10 (vs. 12.9% in healthy controls), but the difference was not statistically significant. The patients  with the highest scores, although not pathological, were patients complaining of “insomnia”. Among patients with cirrhosis those with current minimal hepatic encephalopathy  were more frequently “sleepy”  (p<0.005) and  “insomniac” (p<0.05) .   Table 1 Characteristics of sleep among groups   No significantly difference was observed between Sleepy and Postprandial or Not Sleepy cirrhotic patients with regard to Child-Pugh score, development of ascites, aetiology of cirrhosis, previous encephalopathy and routine biochemistry. The mean value of blood   8 ammonia was 61.79 mcg/dl in Postprandial and Not Sleepy, and 76.88 in Sleepy patients, but the difference was not significant (ANOVA). We tried to divide patients into two groups, according to pathological or normal blood ammonia value (≤ or > 80 mcg/dl), and the two groups were compared according to parameters of sleep habits: they did not show significant differences. Moreover, blood ammonia value did not show any significant correlation with parameters of sleep quality. Bedtime and wake-up time of patients with cirrhosis and healthy controls were similar (mean value of bedtime in cirrhotics: 23.16 vs. controls: 23.53; mean value of wake-up time in cirrhotics: 7.46 vs. controls: 7.36). Even comparing cirrhotic patients with sleep disturbance and those without, these parameters did not differ between groups (mean value of bedtime and wake-up time in insomniac cirrhotic group: 23.07 and 7.18; in non-insomniac cirrhotic group: 23.19 and 7.15).   Discussion Our study confirms that patients with cirrhosis frequently have sleep disorders. We found a significantly higher prevalence of parameters of poor sleep quality, like difficulties falling asleep, nocturnal awakenings and complaints of sleeping badly in patients with cirrhosis than in healthy controls. In addition, daytime functioning of these patients was affected by excessive sleepiness and more prolonged napping time. A higher prevalence of daytime sleepiness  disclosed by the BNSQ questionnaire was not accompanied by a significant different in the Epworth Sleepiness Scale (ESS). This may be because the ESS, validated in narcoleptics and OSAS patients, is not sufficiently accurate in estimating sleepiness in an inactive population like patients with cirrhosis [16]. As reported in previous studies, we found a poor correlation between clinical and laboratory parameters and sleep disturbance or daytime somnolence [17, 18]. We did not find a phase delay in the sleep patterns of patients   9 with cirrhosis, although the sleep questionnaire we used is not an accurate tool to identify circadian abnormalities.  Another limitation of our study is the difficulty defining and estimating sleepiness on the basis of subjective patient evaluation. The first problem is to distinguish sleepiness from common symptoms in cirrhosis, like fatigue, tiredness and lack of energy. Sleepiness could also be linked to the limitations of a chronic disease forcing subjects to lead very sedentary lives, thereby increasing the risk of episodes of undesired sleepiness. In addition, the frequent nocturnal awakenings could be related to more episodes of nicturia because of diuretic treatment. In this regard, another limitation in our study is the lack of a control group with another chronic disease (e.g. chronic renal failure). Sleep difficulty  in patients with cirrhosis could be related to a specific dysregulation of the histamine neurotrasmitter system ( 19,20), and a comparison with other chronic diseases could yield information useful to estimate the real impact of hepatic failure on the sleep pattern and its pathogenesis. Snoring and reported apnoeas did not significantly differ from healthy controls. However, the finding that snoring was more common in “sleepy” than in “post-prandial sleepy” and “not sleepy” patients with cirrhosis in our cohort could strengthen the hypothesis that somnolence in cirrhotic patients is favoured at least in part by an obstructive apnoea syndrome during sleep ( 21,22,23) .           10 References 1. Cordoba J, Cabrera J, Lataif L, Penev P, Zee P, Blei A. T. High prevalence of sleep disturbance in cirrhosis. Hepatology 1998;27(2):339-345. 2 .Bergonzi P, Bianco A, Mazza S, Mennuni G. Night sleep organization in patients with severe hepatic failure. Eur Neurol 1978;17:271-275. 3 .Mechtcheriakov S, Graziadei IW, Kugener A, Wiedemann J, Galbavy C, Hinterhuber H, Marksteiner J, et al. Multidimensional assessment of neuro-psychiatric symptoms in patients with low-grade hepatic encephalopathy: a clinical rating scale. World J Gastroenterol 2005;11(37):5893-8. 4. Newton JL, Gibson GJ, Tomlinson M, Wilton K, Jones D. Fatigue in primary biliary cirrhosis is associated with excessive daytime somnolence. Hepatology 2006;44(1):91-8. 5. Velissaris D, Solomou E, Kalogeropoulos A, Georgiopoulou V, Thomopoulos C, Karatza C. Sleep disorders and brain MRI as early indicators of subclinical hepatic encephalopathy. Hepatogastroenterology 2006;53(67):51-4. 6. Martino ME, Romero-Vives M, Fernandez-Lorente J, De Vicente E, Barcena R, Gaztelu JM. Sleep electroencephalogram alterations disclose initial stage of encephalopathy. Methods Find Exp Clin Pharmacol 2002;24 (Suppl):119-22. 7. Lewis M, Howdle PD. The neurology of liver failure. Q J Med 2003;96:623-633. 8. Jones EA, Weissenborn K. Neurology and the liver. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1997;63:279-293. 9. Blei AT, Cordoba J, et al. Hepatic encephalopathy. The American Journal of Gastroenterology 2001;96(7): 1968-1975. 10. Sherlock S, Summerskill WHJ, White LP, Phear EA. Portal-systemic encephalopathy; neurological complications of liver disease. The Lancet 1954;267(6836):454-457. 11. Ortiz M, Jacas C, Cordoba J. Minimal hepatic encephalopathy: diagnosis, clinical significance and recommendations. J Hepatol 2005;42(Suppl 1):S45-53. 12. Steindl PE, Finn B, Bendok B, Rothke S, Zee PC, Blei AT. Disruption of the diurnal rhythm of plasma melatonin in cirrhosis. Ann Internal Med 1995;123:274-277.   11 13. Hourmand-Ollivier I, Piquet MA, Toudic JP, Denise P, Dao T. Actigraphy: A new diagnostic tool for hepatic encephalopathy. World J Gastroenterol 2006;12(14):2243-2244. 14. Partinem M, Gislason T. Basic North Sleep Questionnaire (BNSQ): a quantitated measure of subjective sleep complaints. Sleep Res 1995;4(S1):150-155. 15. Johns MW. A new method for measuring daytime sleepiness: the Epworth sleepiness scale. Sleep 1991;14: 540-545. 16. Vignatelli L, Mattarozzi K, Zanatta C, Stracciari A. Cognitive function and Epworth Sleepiness Scale in minimal hepatic encephalopathy. European Journal of Neurology2001;8(4):369. 17. Kurtz D, Zenglein JP, Imler M, Girardel M, Greenspan G, Peter B, Rohmer F. Etude du sommeil nocturne au cours de l’encephalopathie porto-cave. Electroenceph Clin Neurophisiol 1972 ;33:167-178. 18. Baldy-Moulinier M, Besset A, Calvet B, Michel H.  Etude polygraphique nycthemerale des endormissement et des reveils au cours des encephalopathies hepatiques. Rev Electroenceph Neurophisiol Clin 1981;11:123-132. 19 Lozeva V,Tuomisto L, Tarhanen J, Butterworth RF .Increased concentrations of histamine and its  metabolite,telemethylistamine and down-regulation of histamine H3 receptor sites in autopsied brain tissue from cirrhotic patients who died in hepatic coma . J Hepatol 2003, 39(4) :522-7 20 Spahr L, Coeytaux MD, Giostra E, Hadengue A, Annoni JM  . Histamine H1 blocker hydroxyzine improves sleep in patients with cirrhosis and minimal hepatic encephalopathy : a randomized controlled pilot trial. Am J Gastroenterol  2007, 102:744-753 ). 21 . Crespo J, Cifrian J, Pinto JA, Jimenez –Gomez A, Pons Romero F. Sleep apnea obstructive syndrome : a new complication previously underscribed  in cirrhotic patients with ascites . Am J Gastroenterol  2003 , 98 : 2815-16  22. Ogata T, Nomura M, Nakaya Y, S.Ito . Evaluation of episodes of sleep apnea in patients with liver cirrhosis . The journal of medical investigation 2006 , 53 : 159-166 23. Nikaina I, Pastaka C, Zachou K, Dalekos GN, Gourgoulianis K. Sleep apnea syndrome and early stage cirrhosis : a pilot study  . Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2006, 18 (1) :31-5    12    Table 1 Characteristics of sleep among groups   Cirrhotic Patients Healthy Controls P Sleepy  (%) Post-prandial Sleepy (%) Not Sleepy (%) 18.5 30.9 50.6 3.9 18.5 77.5 0.005 “Insomnias “(%) 26 7.9 0.005 Difficulty falling asleep (%) 21 8.5 0.01 Night Awakening (%) 71 43 0.005 Early awakening (%) 15 12 n.s. Hypnotics (%) 4.5 2.3 n.s. Morning sleepiness (%) 19 12 n.s. Sleep attacks (%) 6.8 3.4 n.s. Total sleep time (min) 450 442 n.s. Snoring (%) 26 35 n.s. Referred sleep apnea (%) 4.1 5.4 n.s. NAP (%) Duration ( min)  55 38.8 23 26.9 0.005 0.05   

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Sleep Disturbance and Daytime Sleepiness in Patients with Cirrhosis: a Case Control Study

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