Using hierarchical linear models, this study probes into student, family, teacher, and
schools’ variables that can explain the variation in Progress in International Reading
Literacy Study (PIRLS) 2016 results. Students’ confidence in reading, early literacy
tasks, and parents’ expectations are the strongest explanatory variables of reading
literacy. Teachers’ perception of class instruction being limited by students’ needs
is the strongest explanatory variable of PIRLS achievement, although this was not
consistently verified among all countries. No teaching strategies or other related
variables emerged consistently as explanatory variables in every country. A similar
result was observed in schools where the percentage of economic disadvantage
students was the most consistent explanatory variable of PIRLS results. The present
analysis shows that although student variables are the most consistent explanatory
variables among participating countries, a general conclusion of what makes a good
reader worldwide must consider all student, teacher, and school variables conjointly,
acknowledging the existence of between-country variation.info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersio