Bultmann, William A.

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Journal of the Arkansas Academy of Science Volume 7 Article 23 1955 Existentialist Philosophies and Political Decline William A. Bultmann University of Central Arkansas Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.uark.edu/jaas  Part of the Other Philosophy Commons Recommended Citation Bultmann, William A. (1955) "Existentialist Philosophies and Political Decline," Journal of the Arkansas Academy of Science: Vol. 7 , Article 23. Available at: https://scholarworks.uark.edu/jaas/vol7/iss1/23 This article is available for use under the Creative Commons license: Attribution-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-ND 4.0). Users are able to read, download, copy, print, distribute, search, link to the full texts of these articles, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without asking prior permission from the publisher or the author. This Article is brought to you for free and open access by ScholarWorks@UARK. It has been accepted for inclusion in Journal of the Arkansas Academy of Science by an authorized editor of ScholarWorks@UARK. For more information, please contact scholar@uark.edu. i87EXISTENTIALIST PHILOSOPHIES AND POLITICAL DECLINEWILLIAM A. BULTMANNArkansas State Teachers CollegeOne of the major tasks confronting the historian who is engaged in the studyof ideas is an understanding of the relationship between manifest politicalchange and the shifting currents of formal philosophic thought. It falls withinthe historian's province to shed light on the order of precedence existing betweenphilosophy and polity in any particular situation. The phenomenal growth ofinterest in existentialist philosophies among European intellectuals in recentdecades is a matter for inquiry. Existentialism has attracted such wide noticethat Jean Wahl, a proponent, lamented that the philosophy had become a worldproblem.The popularity of existentialism in Europe seems to coincide with nationalpolitical decline and insecurity. The two publications which marked the begin-ning of the movement in the twentieth century 2 appeared in Germany after WorldWar I.These early writings received wide notice, and after their appearanceseveral German universities initiated the study of the philosophy. During the1920' s many German commentaries on existentialism were published. It was duringthis time that the works of Soren Kierkegaard, whose thought is regarded as thefoundation of contemporary existentialism, became available to German readers.Kierkegaard's works stimulated further interest in existentialism in Ger-many, and by 1930 it was evident from the widespread discussion and sizeableliterature that a major trend in formal thought was in the making.During the 1930's, however, Germany's economic and political hopes wereresuscitated under the leadership of the National Socialists, and the existen-tialist trend was stemmed with the rise of Hitler. Existentialists such as KarlJaspers 3,who stood on the prestige of his university position to speak outagainst the Nazis, were deprived of their posts, and their teachings were sup-pressed. Others, like Martin Heidegger, accepted the new government and eitherrefrained from publication or joined the officially sanctioned neo-Hegelianschool of political thought. Thus, it seemed that German existentialism was un-able to cope with the reconstruction of political might, and would die withouta fight.But the German school was not without its offspring. The writingsof Jaspers,Heidegger, and Karl Barth were read outside Germany, especially in France. Underthe leadership of Gabriel Marcel, a French school of existentialism was foundedin 1930, and the translation of Kierkegaard's works into French was begun. Duringthe 1930's the new thought made great headway among French intellectuals, so thatthe decline in Germany was paralleled by a rise in France. By 1940, when Francewas overrun and occupied by German troops, existentialism had acquired thestatus of a major philosophic school. Through the years of occupation, existen-tialist writings continued to appear in France, often in the form of plays ornovels, and existentialist leaders risked imprisonment and death as leaders ofthe French resistance movement.By the end of World War IIexistentialism had become as much a fad as aphilosophy in France, and Jean-Paul Sartre, who had emerged during the war asthe school's most colorful representative, was something of a national hero. Inthe period of political malaise which has gripped France since 1945, existen-tialism has persisted. Marcel and Sartre have been joined by scores of writers,and the sale of existentialist literature continues to be brisk.The disastrous defeat and subsequent partitioning of Germany opened thedoor to a revival of the philosophy there. With the fall of the Nazi government,Jaspers resumed his university post and his writing, and he was received avidlyA Short History of Existentialism, Philosophical Library, 1949, 1.nThese were Karl Barth' s Commentary upon the Epistle to the Romans, and Jaspers' Psychologieder We Itanschauungen.3Jaspers was professor of philosophy at Heidelberg University from 1921 to 1937 when he wasdismissed for political reasons. He was reinstated in 1945.87Journal of the Arkansas Academy of Science, Vol. 7 [1955], Art. 23Published by Arkansas Academy of Science, 195588 ARKANSAS ACADEMY OF SCIENCEthroughout western Germany. Jaspers' works, along with those of other existen-tialists, have been termed in Russian-controlled zones as manifestations ofwestern decadence. With the revival of existentialism in the universities, thephilosophy has won attention elsewhere in Germany, where it holds a dominantplace in German thought.The movement has attracted notice elsewhere in Europe, and since 1945Kierkegaard's books and those of his followers have been translated into all themajor languages of western Europe. To what extent existentialism may influencethe thought of intellectuals in England, or Italy, or Spain, is difficult todetermine, for the philosophy is relatively new in each of these nations. Itmaybe noted, however, that each of these countries has produced thinkers who areinfluenced by the assertion of the school.The question which emerges in the light of the apparent widespread interestin existentialism is this: What is the appeal of this philosophy to the Europeanof the mid- twentieth century? There are several possible answers. Norberto Bobbio,an Italian thinker, ascribes its growth to the toxic decadentism which todaypermeates European culture. 4 Or the movement might be regarded as the manifes-tation of temporary unrest following war. Whatever the explanation, it mustemerge in relationship to a Weltanschauung created in an atmosphere of powerrecession and decline.The institutions which supported the past greatness of Europe, today seemincapable of holding back the difficulties which plague Europe's society or ofguaranteeing any future security. The shattered hopes and the physical ruinfollowing World War IIdrove Europeans to a stage of despair and anguish, onwhich existentialism dwells.The philosophy of existentialism is a melancholy one, having won for Kierke-gaard the sobriquet the Melancholy Dane. Existentialists agree on one point atleast--that man must undergo a personal crisis of forlornness, isolation, anddespair before he can comprehend life. The reward of the philosophy is the giftof alertness, awareness, participation. Existentialism is harshly critical ofthought systems which tend to sacrifice free man to institutions or systems. Inthe words of Emmanuel Mounier, existentialism is primarily a reaction to allphilosophies which deal excessively with things and ideas, to the exclusion ofman. 5 It fears that formal thought too often reduces man to the merest part of avast cosmic mechanism, by making him a machine which operates without choice oreffect.This objecti fication of man--that is, his reduction to mere essence, aclassifiable object of known quantity and quality and predictable responses--is the fundamental error of philosophers, according to existentialists. Catalogall the observations of man that you wish, but when you have done this you havenot understood him. There is something about man which is above classification,and this is the existence of man. What is existence? Here is the question towhich essentialist philosophy has no answer, but more than this, it is thequestion which essentialism fails to ask.The fact that Iam, says the existentialist, is for me the central fact ofthe universe. But this is not the same as cogito, ergo sum, for my being is morethan thought. Being is anxiety. Iam anxious that Iexist, and that Ido so in acertain time and place, and may not do so always. Problems of philosophy areoutside of me, but they must be studied in relationship to me, for their veryexistence as problems depends upon me and my existence.The problem of defining the term existence occupies a major place in exis-tentialist literature. But it leaves the reader with little satisfaction, be-cause existence is found within personal involvement and experience, rather thanthrough observation and identification. Defining existence poses a problem akinto that which would be encountered if we were to attempt definition of some suchword as pain or love to a person who had never encountered these sensations.Existence must be felt, not reasoned, and can be felt only under certain con-ditions. It never can be known, if knowledge implies objecti fication. There is*The Philosophy of Decadentism, A Study of Existentialism, Macmillan, 1948, 60.5 Existentialist Philosophies, Macmillan, 1949, 20.88Journal of the Arkansas Academy of Science, Vol. 7 [1955], Art. 23https://scholarworks.uark.edu/jaas/vol7/iss1/23EXISTENTIALIST PHILOSOPHIES 89degree of existence, no gradual understanding of existence, no transitionperiod of becoming an existent.The existent person undergoes a profound emotional experience involvingfrustration, anguish, forlornness, despair, and rejection. During this crisis heeels that there is no hope, that knowledge is invain, that science and itsesults are meaningless, that progress is ephemeral and apparent. Where, then,should he turn? To God? To love? To society? To himself? He discovers here thatle is possessed with a dreadful freedom, the freedom of complete decision, andin this discovery he finds the meaning of existence, the meaning of mankind. Atthis point, in existentialist Language, he looks over the brim of knowledge intohe Nothingness, or into the Face of God, or into existence, and he finds aninfinite relationship between himself and his destiny. He realizes the Infinite,le transcends.This emotional experience, or crisis situation, is the fundamental assertionof the school. Divergence among the existentialists begins with its assessment.All agree that itis the instrument which lifts the existent being from the cate-rory of Everyman. Kierkegaard saw it as containing the conversion experienceof the Christian. Sartre says it represents the revelation that there is nothing>eyond--no God, noother. Heidegger saw in itan answer to the problem of ontology.The interpreters of the crisis situation may be separated into two mainjroups. The first, of which Barth and Marcel may be considered representative,agree with Kierkegaard, and have led in a movement toward neo-orthodox Chris-tianity. Barth, who has influenced profoundly Reinhold Niebuhr, is credited bylelmut Kuhn with having resuscitated Protestant theology in our time. Thecrisis situation, according to Barth, leads to the enthronement of faith as thesource of ultimate truth, and the discovery of a God who resembles the God ex-jerienced by the prophets of the Old Testament. Barth's version calls for anultimate rejection of formal philosophy and a return to religion. In a similarvein, Marcel arrives at a Christian humanism. The crisis results in communionwith another, and the nature of Being is discovered through the communion, whichis called the I-Thou relationship.The second branch, non-Christian existentialism, includes philosopherswhose interpretations range from the amoral, analytic beliefs of Jaspers throughthe ontological concerns of Heidegger to the moral atheism of Sartre. For thisschool the crisis situation teaches man that he simply is flung into the web ofexistence for no apparent reason. Man discovers himself and is fearful of thefreedom which is his. There is no predetermined purpose or goal to guide him. Heis alone, and choice is completely and frightfully his. His freedom is neither adelusion nor the gift of God. It simply exists, for no reason. Man's tragedylies in the odds against him, in the effect or lack of effect of his choices.Sartre urges moral responsibility. Since the crisis situation shows theexistent that there is no other, no God to blame for misfortune, he knows thatie must shoulder the burden of his own behavior. Man must be responsible for hislehavior and for the well-being of others, and he should not participate inlovements which he judges to be immoral. Itis better to commit suicide than toight in an unjust war. This doctrine of individual moral responsibility, devoidof religious implication, has held a wide appeal among those whose faith inorthodox religion has waned. Sartre's existentialism is perhaps the most popularof the French interpretations today.To the inhabitant of the European wasteland, existentialism holds a posi-tive attraction. For what mature person in western Europe could have avoiced,during the past decade, the experiences of despair upon which the philosophyIwells? And what European did not feel resentment toward the objectif ication'hich resulted in the loss of personal freedoms? The job of existentialism, aslounier says, 7 is to rescue man from the inertia of things, from docile social-ness, and to restore to him a sense of wonder, curiosity, responsibility. Thisphilosophy strives to bring man back to the center of the philosophic universe,to give him choice, to call him individual. It is a personal philosophy which"Existentialism," in Vergilius Ferm, ed., A History of Philosophical Systems, PhilosophicalLibrary, 1950.7 Op. cit., 69.89Journal of the Arkansas Academy of Science, Vol. 7 [1955], Art. 23Published by Arkansas Academy of Science, 1955'ARKANSAS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE90appears to be tailor-made for individuals living in a civilization which hasbeen ravaged by war.Europeans have witnessed the technological results of scientific rational-ism coupled with the political results of Hegelian idealism. The combination hasnearly destroyed European society. A madness which has stemmed from an absenceof inwardness has all but engulfed a generation which sought to regard the worldas Pure Manifestation. But the thinkers of Europe have seen the danger and havelooked for a way out. They have sought a philosophy which is humanistic, andwhich asserts the value of inwardness. For many, existentialism is the way.90Journal of the Arkansas Academy of Science, Vol. 7 [1955], Art. 23https://scholarworks.uark.edu/jaas/vol7/iss1/23

Existentialist Philosophies and Political Decline

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Journal of the Arkansas Academy of ScienceVolume 7 Article 231955Existentialist Philosophies and Political DeclineWilliam A. BultmannUniversity of Central ArkansasFollow this and additional works at: http://scholarworks.uark.edu/jaasPart of the Other Philosophy CommonsThis article is available for use under the Creative Commons license: Attribution-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-ND 4.0). Users are able toread, download, copy, print, distribute, search, link to the full texts of these articles, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without asking priorpermission from the publisher or the author.This Article is brought to you for free and open access by ScholarWorks@UARK. It has been accepted for inclusion in Journal of the Arkansas Academyof Science by an authorized editor of ScholarWorks@UARK. For more information, please contact scholar@uark.edu, ccmiddle@uark.edu.Recommended CitationBultmann, William A. (1955) "Existentialist Philosophies and Political Decline," Journal of the Arkansas Academy of Science: Vol. 7 ,Article 23.Available at: http://scholarworks.uark.edu/jaas/vol7/iss1/23i87EXISTENTIALIST PHILOSOPHIES AND POLITICAL DECLINEWILLIAM A. BULTMANNArkansas State Teachers CollegeOne of the major tasks confronting the historian who is engaged in the studyof ideas is an understanding of the relationship between manifest politicalchange and the shifting currents of formal philosophic thought. It falls withinthe historian's province to shed light on the order of precedence existing betweenphilosophy and polity in any particular situation. The phenomenal growth ofinterest in existentialist philosophies among European intellectuals in recentdecades is a matter for inquiry. Existentialism has attracted such wide noticethat Jean Wahl, a proponent, lamented that the philosophy had become a worldproblem.The popularity of existentialism in Europe seems to coincide with nationalpolitical decline and insecurity. The two publications which marked the begin-ning of the movement in the twentieth century 2 appeared in Germany after WorldWar I.These early writings received wide notice, and after their appearanceseveral German universities initiated the study of the philosophy. During the1920' s many German commentaries on existentialism were published. It was duringthis time that the works of Soren Kierkegaard, whose thought is regarded as thefoundation of contemporary existentialism, became available to German readers.Kierkegaard's works stimulated further interest in existentialism in Ger-many, and by 1930 it was evident from the widespread discussion and sizeableliterature that a major trend in formal thought was in the making.During the 1930's, however, Germany's economic and political hopes wereresuscitated under the leadership of the National Socialists, and the existen-tialist trend was stemmed with the rise of Hitler. Existentialists such as KarlJaspers 3,who stood on the prestige of his university position to speak outagainst the Nazis, were deprived of their posts, and their teachings were sup-pressed. Others, like Martin Heidegger, accepted the new government and eitherrefrained from publication or joined the officially sanctioned neo-Hegelianschool of political thought. Thus, it seemed that German existentialism was un-able to cope with the reconstruction of political might, and would die withouta fight.But the German school was not without its offspring. The writingsof Jaspers,Heidegger, and Karl Barth were read outside Germany, especially in France. Underthe leadership of Gabriel Marcel, a French school of existentialism was foundedin 1930, and the translation of Kierkegaard's works into French was begun. Duringthe 1930's the new thought made great headway among French intellectuals, so thatthe decline in Germany was paralleled by a rise in France. By 1940, when Francewas overrun and occupied by German troops, existentialism had acquired thestatus of a major philosophic school. Through the years of occupation, existen-tialist writings continued to appear in France, often in the form of plays ornovels, and existentialist leaders risked imprisonment and death as leaders ofthe French resistance movement.By the end of World War IIexistentialism had become as much a fad as aphilosophy in France, and Jean-Paul Sartre, who had emerged during the war asthe school's most colorful representative, was something of a national hero. Inthe period of political malaise which has gripped France since 1945, existen-tialism has persisted. Marcel and Sartre have been joined by scores of writers,and the sale of existentialist literature continues to be brisk.The disastrous defeat and subsequent partitioning of Germany opened thedoor to a revival of the philosophy there. With the fall of the Nazi government,Jaspers resumed his university post and his writing, and he was received avidlyA Short History of Existentialism, Philosophical Library, 1949, 1.nThese were Karl Barth' s Commentary upon the Epistle to the Romans, and Jaspers' Psychologieder We Itanschauungen.3Jaspers was professor of philosophy at Heidelberg University from 1921 to 1937 when he wasdismissed for political reasons. He was reinstated in 1945.87Journal of the Arkansas Academy of Science, Vol. 7 [1955], Art. 23Published by Arkansas Academy of Science, 195588 ARKANSAS ACADEMY OF SCIENCEthroughout western Germany. Jaspers' works, along with those of other existen-tialists, have been termed in Russian-controlled zones as manifestations ofwestern decadence. With the revival of existentialism in the universities, thephilosophy has won attention elsewhere in Germany, where it holds a dominantplace in German thought.The movement has attracted notice elsewhere in Europe, and since 1945Kierkegaard's books and those of his followers have been translated into all themajor languages of western Europe. To what extent existentialism may influencethe thought of intellectuals in England, or Italy, or Spain, is difficult todetermine, for the philosophy is relatively new in each of these nations. Itmaybe noted, however, that each of these countries has produced thinkers who areinfluenced by the assertion of the school.The question which emerges in the light of the apparent widespread interestin existentialism is this: What is the appeal of this philosophy to the Europeanof the mid- twentieth century? There are several possible answers. Norberto Bobbio,an Italian thinker, ascribes its growth to the toxic decadentism which todaypermeates European culture. 4 Or the movement might be regarded as the manifes-tation of temporary unrest following war. Whatever the explanation, it mustemerge in relationship to a Weltanschauung created in an atmosphere of powerrecession and decline.The institutions which supported the past greatness of Europe, today seemincapable of holding back the difficulties which plague Europe's society or ofguaranteeing any future security. The shattered hopes and the physical ruinfollowing World War IIdrove Europeans to a stage of despair and anguish, onwhich existentialism dwells.The philosophy of existentialism is a melancholy one, having won for Kierke-gaard the sobriquet the Melancholy Dane. Existentialists agree on one point atleast--that man must undergo a personal crisis of forlornness, isolation, anddespair before he can comprehend life. The reward of the philosophy is the giftof alertness, awareness, participation. Existentialism is harshly critical ofthought systems which tend to sacrifice free man to institutions or systems. Inthe words of Emmanuel Mounier, existentialism is primarily a reaction to allphilosophies which deal excessively with things and ideas, to the exclusion ofman. 5 It fears that formal thought too often reduces man to the merest part of avast cosmic mechanism, by making him a machine which operates without choice oreffect.This objecti fication of man--that is, his reduction to mere essence, aclassifiable object of known quantity and quality and predictable responses--is the fundamental error of philosophers, according to existentialists. Catalogall the observations of man that you wish, but when you have done this you havenot understood him. There is something about man which is above classification,and this is the existence of man. What is existence? Here is the question towhich essentialist philosophy has no answer, but more than this, it is thequestion which essentialism fails to ask.The fact that Iam, says the existentialist, is for me the central fact ofthe universe. But this is not the same as cogito, ergo sum, for my being is morethan thought. Being is anxiety. Iam anxious that Iexist, and that Ido so in acertain time and place, and may not do so always. Problems of philosophy areoutside of me, but they must be studied in relationship to me, for their veryexistence as problems depends upon me and my existence.The problem of defining the term existence occupies a major place in exis-tentialist literature. But it leaves the reader with little satisfaction, be-cause existence is found within personal involvement and experience, rather thanthrough observation and identification. Defining existence poses a problem akinto that which would be encountered if we were to attempt definition of some suchword as pain or love to a person who had never encountered these sensations.Existence must be felt, not reasoned, and can be felt only under certain con-ditions. It never can be known, if knowledge implies objecti fication. There is*The Philosophy of Decadentism, A Study of Existentialism, Macmillan, 1948, 60.5 Existentialist Philosophies, Macmillan, 1949, 20.88Journal of the Arkansas Academy of Science, Vol. 7 [1955], Art. 23http://scholarworks.uark.edu/jaas/vol7/iss1/23EXISTENTIALIST PHILOSOPHIES 89degree of existence, no gradual understanding of existence, no transitionperiod of becoming an existent.The existent person undergoes a profound emotional experience involvingfrustration, anguish, forlornness, despair, and rejection. During this crisis heeels that there is no hope, that knowledge is invain, that science and itsesults are meaningless, that progress is ephemeral and apparent. Where, then,should he turn? To God? To love? To society? To himself? He discovers here thatle is possessed with a dreadful freedom, the freedom of complete decision, andin this discovery he finds the meaning of existence, the meaning of mankind. Atthis point, in existentialist Language, he looks over the brim of knowledge intohe Nothingness, or into the Face of God, or into existence, and he finds aninfinite relationship between himself and his destiny. He realizes the Infinite,le transcends.This emotional experience, or crisis situation, is the fundamental assertionof the school. Divergence among the existentialists begins with its assessment.All agree that itis the instrument which lifts the existent being from the cate-rory of Everyman. Kierkegaard saw it as containing the conversion experienceof the Christian. Sartre says it represents the revelation that there is nothing>eyond--no God, noother. Heidegger saw in itan answer to the problem of ontology.The interpreters of the crisis situation may be separated into two mainjroups. The first, of which Barth and Marcel may be considered representative,agree with Kierkegaard, and have led in a movement toward neo-orthodox Chris-tianity. Barth, who has influenced profoundly Reinhold Niebuhr, is credited bylelmut Kuhn with having resuscitated Protestant theology in our time. Thecrisis situation, according to Barth, leads to the enthronement of faith as thesource of ultimate truth, and the discovery of a God who resembles the God ex-jerienced by the prophets of the Old Testament. Barth's version calls for anultimate rejection of formal philosophy and a return to religion. In a similarvein, Marcel arrives at a Christian humanism. The crisis results in communionwith another, and the nature of Being is discovered through the communion, whichis called the I-Thou relationship.The second branch, non-Christian existentialism, includes philosopherswhose interpretations range from the amoral, analytic beliefs of Jaspers throughthe ontological concerns of Heidegger to the moral atheism of Sartre. For thisschool the crisis situation teaches man that he simply is flung into the web ofexistence for no apparent reason. Man discovers himself and is fearful of thefreedom which is his. There is no predetermined purpose or goal to guide him. Heis alone, and choice is completely and frightfully his. His freedom is neither adelusion nor the gift of God. It simply exists, for no reason. Man's tragedylies in the odds against him, in the effect or lack of effect of his choices.Sartre urges moral responsibility. Since the crisis situation shows theexistent that there is no other, no God to blame for misfortune, he knows thatie must shoulder the burden of his own behavior. Man must be responsible for hislehavior and for the well-being of others, and he should not participate inlovements which he judges to be immoral. Itis better to commit suicide than toight in an unjust war. This doctrine of individual moral responsibility, devoidof religious implication, has held a wide appeal among those whose faith inorthodox religion has waned. Sartre's existentialism is perhaps the most popularof the French interpretations today.To the inhabitant of the European wasteland, existentialism holds a posi-tive attraction. For what mature person in western Europe could have avoiced,during the past decade, the experiences of despair upon which the philosophyIwells? And what European did not feel resentment toward the objectif ication'hich resulted in the loss of personal freedoms? The job of existentialism, aslounier says, 7 is to rescue man from the inertia of things, from docile social-ness, and to restore to him a sense of wonder, curiosity, responsibility. Thisphilosophy strives to bring man back to the center of the philosophic universe,to give him choice, to call him individual. It is a personal philosophy which"Existentialism," in Vergilius Ferm, ed., A History of Philosophical Systems, PhilosophicalLibrary, 1950.7 Op. cit., 69.89Journal of the Arkansas Academy of Science, Vol. 7 [1955], Art. 23Published by Arkansas Academy of Science, 1955'ARKANSAS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE90appears to be tailor-made for individuals living in a civilization which hasbeen ravaged by war.Europeans have witnessed the technological results of scientific rational-ism coupled with the political results of Hegelian idealism. The combination hasnearly destroyed European society. A madness which has stemmed from an absenceof inwardness has all but engulfed a generation which sought to regard the worldas Pure Manifestation. But the thinkers of Europe have seen the danger and havelooked for a way out. They have sought a philosophy which is humanistic, andwhich asserts the value of inwardness. For many, existentialism is the way.90Journal of the Arkansas Academy of Science, Vol. 7 [1955], Art. 23http://scholarworks.uark.edu/jaas/vol7/iss1/23

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