Objective: To investigate the surface morphology, structure, elemental composition, and key mechanical properties of various sizes and tempers of Australian wires.
Materials and Methods: Three types of Australian wire were used: 0.016″ regular, 0.018″ regular+, and 0.018″ special+ (A.J. Wilcock, Whittlesea, Victoria, Australia). Each type of wire was subjected to scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis, x-ray energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) investigation, Vickers hardness testing, and tensile testing. The modulus of elasticity and ultimate tensile strength were determined. Hardness, modulus, and strength data were analyzed with one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Tukey testing at the .05 level of significance.
Results: All three types of Australian wire were found to possess considerably rough surfaces with striations, irregularities, and excessive porosity. All three wire types had high levels of carbon and a similar hardness, which ranged within 600 VHN (Vickers hardness number), and a similar modulus of elasticity (173 to 177 GPa). The 0.018″ special+ had a significantly lower tensile strength (1632 MPa) than the 0.016″ regular and the 0.018″ regular+ wire (2100 MPa).
Conclusions: Australian wires did not show variation implied by the size or temper of the wires

Berzins, David W.

Bradley, T. Gerard

Eliades, George

Eliades, Theodore

Pelsue, Brian M.

Zinelis, Spiros

English

epublications@Marquette

Marquette Universitye-Publications@MarquetteSchool of Dentistry Faculty Research andPublications Dentistry, School of1-1-2009Structure, Composition, and MechanicalProperties of Australian Orthodontic WiresBrian M. PelsueMarquette UniversitySpiros ZinelisNational and Kapodistrian University of AthensT. Gerard BradleyMarquette University, thomas.bradley@marquette.eduDavid W. BerzinsMarquette University, david.berzins@marquette.eduTheodore EliadesUniversity of ZurichSee next page for additional authorsPublished version. The Angle Orthodontist, Vol. 79, No. 1 ( January 2009): 97-101. DOI. © 2009 TheE. H. Angle Education and Research Foundation, Inc. Used with permission.AuthorsBrian M. Pelsue, Spiros Zinelis, T. Gerard Bradley, David W. Berzins, Theodore Eliades, and George EliadesThis article is available at e-Publications@Marquette: https://epublications.marquette.edu/dentistry_fac/98DOI: 10.2319/022408-110.1Original ArticleStructure, Composition, and Mechanical Properties ofAustralian Orthodontic WiresBrian M. Pelsuea; Spiros Zinelisb; T. Gerard Bradleyc;David W. Berzinsd; Theodore Eliadese;George EliadesfABSTRACTObjective: To investigate the surface morphology, structure, elemental composition, and key me-chanical properties of various sizes and tempers of Australian wires.Materials and Methods: Three types of Australian wire were used: 0.016 regular, 0.018 regu-lar, and 0.018 special (A.J. Wilcock, Whittlesea, Victoria, Australia). Each type of wire wassubjected to scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis, x-ray energy dispersive spectroscopy(EDS) investigation, Vickers hardness testing, and tensile testing. The modulus of elasticity andultimate tensile strength were determined. Hardness, modulus, and strength data were analyzedwith one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Tukey testing at the .05 level of significance.Results: All three types of Australian wire were found to possess considerably rough surfaceswith striations, irregularities, and excessive porosity. All three wire types had high levels of carbonand a similar hardness, which ranged within 600 VHN (Vickers hardness number), and a similarmodulus of elasticity (173 to 177 GPa). The 0.018 special had a significantly lower tensilestrength (1632 MPa) than the 0.016 regular and the 0.018 regular wire (2100 MPa).Conclusions: Australian wires did not show variation implied by the size or temper of the wires.(Angle Orthod. 2009;79:97–101.)KEY WORDS: Australian wire; Stainless steel; SEM; EDS; Hardness; Modulus of elasticityINTRODUCTIONAlthough Australian wire, a distinctive type of steelused in various techniques and treatment philoso-a Resident, Department of Developmental Sciences, Mar-quette University School of Dentistry, Milwaukee, Wisconsin.b Lecturer, Department of Biomaterials, School of Dentistry,University of Athens, Athens, Greece.c Associate Professor, Department of Developmental Scienc-es, Marquette University School of Dentistry, Milwaukee, Wis-consin.d Assistant Professor, Department of Biomaterials, MarquetteUniversity School of Dentistry, Milwaukee, Wisconsin.e Associate Professor, Department of Biomaterials, School ofDentistry, University of Athens, Athens, Greece.f Professor, Department of Biomaterials, University of Athens,Athens, Greece.Corresponding author: Dr Theodore Eliades, Agnoston Hiroon57 Nea Ionia, Athens 14231 Greece(e-mail: teliades@ath.forthnet.gr)Accepted: March 2008. Submitted: February 2008. 2009 by The EH Angle Education and Research Foundation,Inc.Based on a thesis submitted by Brian M. Pelsue in partialfulfillment of the Master of Science degree, Marquette Univer-sity, Milwaukee, WI, 2008.phies, has been included in the orthodontic armamen-tarium for quite some time, a review of the publishedliterature reveals a lack of information on fundamentalphysical and mechanical properties. Investigation ofkey physical and mechanical properties of wires mayprovide a basis for their intraoral performance and mayassist the clinician in selecting optimum handling andapplication in mechanotherapeutical configurations.Historically, Australian wire was developed by Begg,the father of the Begg technique, and Wilcock. Beggwas seeking a light, flexible, stainless steel wire withhigh resiliency and toughness to use in his newly de-veloped Begg technique.1,2Australian wire is available in sizes ranging from0.012 to 0.024 round wire and as regular, regular,special, special, premium, premium, and supremegrades.3 The wires are graded according to their re-siliency, with resiliency increasing from regular to su-preme.4 Regular and regular Australian wire is oftenused in situations that require significant bending orloop forming of the arch wire. Special and specialwires are stronger and are not suitable for bending.These wires are often used in the treatment of deep98 PELSUE, ZINELIS, BRADLEY, BERZINS, ELIADES, ELIADESbites because of their increased resistance to perma-nent deformation. The remaining grades are very re-silient but are not appropriate for situations that requirethat sharps bends be placed in the archwire, becauseof their brittle nature. These high resiliency grades areoften used as auxiliaries.3A significant body of literature4–8 has addressed thestudy of the mechanical and structural properties oftraditional stainless steel orthodontic wire. These wireswere the first to be adopted in the treatment of mal-occlusions following Angle’s gold archwires, and theirlong-lasting application has led to numerous researchefforts to characterize the mechanical properties ofvarious sizes and tempers. Therefore, to provide ameaningful discussion of the properties of Australianwires, and in light of the scarcity of evidence in thefield, this paper will use values of standard stainlesssteel properties to provide a comparison with corre-sponding data on Australian wires. This will assist theclinician in determining the appropriateness of wire forspecific applications, such as leveling, aligning, and/orsliding mechanics among others.The purpose of this study was to investigate select-ed physical and mechanical properties of Australianwire and to correlate the evidence derived from thisinvestigation with the temper and size of wires.MATERIALS AND METHODSThree types of Australian wire were analyzed in thisstudy: 0.016 regular, 0.018 regular, and 0.018special—all from the same manufacturer (A.J. Wil-cock, Whittlesea, Victoria, Australia). Ten specimens120 mm long of each type were prepared; long spec-imens were chosen to minimize stress incorporation inthe central part of the specimen, which was the areaof analysis. These segments were carefully handledas they were uncoiled from the spools and were sub-jected to the following tests.Morphology, Structure, and CompositionThe surface morphology and elemental compositionof materials tested were determined by scanning elec-tron microscopy/energy dispersive spectroscopy(SEM/EDS) analysis. A scanning electron microscope(Quanta 200; FEI, Hilsboro, Ore) coupled with an EDSunit (Sapphire CDU; EDAX, Mahwah, NJ) equippedwith a super–ultra thin Be window was used in thestudy. Spectra were obtained under the following con-ditions: 5.1  106 Pa vacuum, 25 kV acceleratingvoltage, 100 A beam current, 500 original magni-fication with a 0.26  0.26 mm sampling window, 100second acquisition time, and 30% to 40% dead time.Quantitative analysis of the %wt concentration ofprobed elements was performed via nonstandardanalysis and ZAF correction, with the use of Genesis5.1 software (EDAX).Vickers HardnessFive wire specimens of each type were embeddedin epoxy resin at a direction perpendicular to their lon-gitudinal axes. Specimens were ground with 220 to2000 grit size SiC papers under water cooling, werepolished up to 0.05 m with alumina suspensions(Bueler, Lake Bluff, Ill) in a grinding/polishing machine(Ecomet II; Bueler), and were cleaned in an ultrasonicwater bath for 5 minutes. The Vickers hardness (HV)of wires was assessed by using a microhardness tes-ter (HMV-2000; Shimadzu, Tokyo, Japan) under a 500g load and testing time of 15 seconds.Tensile TestingTensile testing until fracture of the wires was con-ducted with a universal tensile testing machine (Mon-sato; Tensometer 10, Weltshie, UK). The tensile test-ing was performed with a gauge length of 90 mm anda crosshead speed of 0.5 mm/min. From each stress-strain curve, the modulus of elasticity and ultimate ten-sile strength were calculated.Statistical AnalysisResults of quantitative measurements (ie, hardness,modulus, and ultimate tensile strength) were statisti-cally analyzed through one-way analysis of variance(ANOVA), with wire type serving as a predictor. Ad-ditional group differences were investigated with Tu-key HSD (honestly significant difference) testing at the.05 level.RESULTSThe topography of the wires showed rough surfaceswith characteristic striations derived from the drawingprocess, along with excessive porosity and irregulari-ties. Figure 1a depicts the surface of a 0.016 regularwire, which demonstrates reduced porosity and sur-face irregularities relative to the other two types. Fig-ure 1b shows a 0.018 regular wire with the surfacerevealing increased roughness and porosity. In Figure1c, the microscopic appearance of a 0.018 specialwire is shown, indicating a rough surface and an abun-dance of irregularities.The elemental composition of the wires (Figures 2athrough 2c) indicates higher carbon content for all wirespecimens (quantitative data not shown), whereas dif-ferent tempers did not show variation in the composi-tion of alloys.Table 1 shows the statistical analysis of the Vickershardness testing results. No difference was found with99PROPERTIES OF AUSTRALIAN WIRESFigure 1. Representative secondary electron image of (a) 0.016 regular, (b) 0.018 regular, and (c) 0.018 special wires (Original mag-nification 200).respect to hardness, which ranged in the order of 660HV500 for all wire types.In Table 2, results of the modulus of elasticity of wirespecimens are demonstrated. No effect of wire size ortemper on the modulus of wire was observed, whereasthis variable was found to range around 170 GPa forall three wire types.Results of the ultimate tensile strength of specimensare shown in Table 3. A statistically significant reduc-tion is indicated for the 0.018 special wire, and theother groups showed values on the order of 2100MPa.DISCUSSIONA search of the orthodontic literature yielded only ahandful of studies pertinent to the analysis of surfacecharacteristics, elemental composition, and mechani-cal properties of conventional stainless steel orthodon-tic wires. Moreover, very little information has beenpresented on Australian orthodontic wires. Meanwhile,the introduction of different sizes and tempers makesapplication of the full range of these wires a highlyempirical task, with notable lack of justification of spe-cific selection. The clinical question behind the presentinvestigation relates to the extent of differentiation ofwire properties with regard to temper or size.All wire specimens were found to possess roughand irregular surfaces, along with excessive porosity.Surface inspection of the images showed that irregu-larity and porosity increased with higher grades of theAustralian wire. Previous studies9–12 on Australianwires also found increased roughness, along with nu-100 PELSUE, ZINELIS, BRADLEY, BERZINS, ELIADES, ELIADESFigure 2. Energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) spectra of (a)0.016 regular, (b) 0.018 regular, and (c) 0.018 special wires.Table 1. Vickers Hardness of Australian Wires Included in theStudyWire VHN500 Mean (SD)a Tukey Grouping*.016 Regular 644 (31) A.018 Regular 640 (36) A.018 Special 664 (24) Aa SD indicates standard deviation; VHN500, Vickers hardness num-ber.* Means with the same letters are not statistically different at the.05 level.Table 2. Modulus of Elasticity of the Australian Wires Included inthe Study (GPa)Wire Mean, GPa (SD)a Tukey Grouping*.016 Regular 173 (4) A.018 Regular 173 (5) A.018 Special 177 (9) Aa GPa indicates modulus of elasticity; SD, standard deviation.* Means with the same letters are not statistically different at the.05 level.Table 3. Ultimate Tensile Strength of the Wires Included in theStudy (MPa)aWire Mean, MPa (SD)a Tukey Grouping*.016 Regular 2194 (79) A.018 Regular 2123 (68) A.018 Special 1682 (166) Ba MPa indicates tensile strength; SD, standard deviation.* Means with the same letters are not statistically different at the.05 level.merous impurities plugged on the surface.11 These au-thors reported a striated appearance, most probablyattributed to the drawing process that occurs duringmanufacture of the wire.Almost all orthodontic stainless steel wires are fromthe type 300 series, which implies that chromium con-tents account for 17% to 25%, and nickel 8% to12%.4–8 These traditional stainless steel wires are of-ten manufactured to an 18/8 composition, which indi-cates around 18% chromium and 8% nickel.5 Thiscomposition allows a chromium oxide layer to formand the alloy to remain in the austenite form, whichleads to better corrosion resistance.4 The carbon con-tent is intentionally kept at below 0.20% to reduce theformation of chromium carbides, which can lead to cor-rosion of the austenitic form of stainless steel.4 A studyof Australian and stainless steel wires11 found that A.J.Wilcock Australian wires were of the 18/8 stainlesssteel type but made no note of the carbon content.Therefore, it could be assumed that the carbon contentwas within the 0.20% range of traditional stainlesssteel wires. Semiquantitative elemental analysis ofAustralian wires as reported in the present investiga-101PROPERTIES OF AUSTRALIAN WIREStion indicates that the carbon content is well above thevalues reported for typical 18/8 stainless steel wire.Although EDS cannot be used to quantify light ele-ments such as carbon, and thus the results should notbe used on an absolute basis, data from this analysisreveal carbon content that is almost 10 times higherthan the standard value. This increased carbon con-tent could account for the rough, irregular, and exces-sively porous surfaces noted in our SEM images of thewires. This may account for the impurities noted onthe surfaces of Australian wires in previous studiesand may explain the propensity for higher grades ofAustralian wires to not accept bends clinically.1,3Hardness of stainless steel wires9 has been shownto vary within the 235 to 300 range. However, othershave reported values within the order of magnitudefound in this study, which are much higher.13 Temper-ing of high carbon alloys is associated with increasinghardness caused by clustering of carbon atoms andprecipitation of carbides.14 Thus, higher hardness val-ues could be attributed to increased carbon content inthe Australian wire, along with the manufacturing pro-cess. In addition, this increased hardness may causeAustralian wire to be more brittle than traditional stain-less steel wire and consequently may adversely affectthe ability of the wire to withstand bending. The in-creased hardness of Australian wire may also ad-versely affect orthodontic mechanics, specifically, slid-ing mechanics. The Vickers hardness value (VHN) forcommonly used titanium brackets ranged from 165 inthe base to 372 in the tie wings.15 The large differencein hardness between Australian wire and titaniumbrackets may cause the wire to bind and not slide aswell through the bracket slot as stainless steel wire,which has VHN numbers that are more comparablewith bracket VHN numbers.With respect to mechanical properties, previous in-vestigations of both round6,7 and rectangular stainlesssteel wire9,10 found that the range of modulus of elas-ticity and ultimate tensile strength did not differ signif-icantly. Stainless steel wire presented modulus around170 GPa in one study10 and from 160 to 180 GPa inanother,5 whereas the ultimate tensile strength report-ed was 2100 MPa.10 The modulus of elasticity and ul-timate tensile strength testing on Australian wire per-formed in this study yielded results consistent withthose of traditional stainless steel wire, except for theultimate tensile strength of 0.018 special Australianwire, which was found to be significantly less than val-ues for the 0.016 regular and 0.018 regular Austra-lian wires. It is interesting to note that this wire pre-sented the roughest and most irregular surface amongthe three tested, and these features are probably re-lated to this effect.Porosity and rough surface may contribute to thetendency of higher grade wires to break during clinicalbending. The higher carbon content may also contrib-ute to the hardness of Australian wire. This increasedhardness may lead to fracture during clinical bendingand possibly to adverse affects during orthodonticmechanotherapy.CONCLUSIONS• The present investigation does not support an effectof temper or size on hardness and, most importantly,modulus of elasticity in Australian wires.• Therefore, different tempers do not imply an eleva-tion in specific properties; actually, some propertiesmay be related to reduced strength.REFERENCES1. Begg PR, Kesling PC. Begg Orthodontic Theory and Tech-nique. Philadelphia, Pa: WB Saunders; 1977:94–96.2. Begg PR. Light arch wire technique. Am J Orthod. 1961;47:30–48.3. World Famous A.J. Wilcock Australian Wire, G&H WireCompany. Available at: http://www.ghwire.com/orstore/sa1.aspx. Accessed January 2, 2008.4. Kusy RP. A review of contemporary archwires: their prop-erties and characteristics. Angle Orthod. 1997;67:197–207.5. Brantley WA. Orthodontic wires. In: Brantley WA, Eliades T,eds. Orthodontic Materials: Scientific and Clinical Aspects.Stuttgart, Germany: Thieme; 2001:78–103.6. Khier SE, Brantley WA, Fournelle RA. Structure and me-chanical properties of as-received and heat treated stain-less steel orthodontic wires. Am J Orthod Dentofacial Or-thop. 1988;93:206–212.7. Asgharnia MK, Brantley WA. Comparison of bending andtension tests for orthodontic wires. Am J Orthod. 1986;89:228–236.8. Kusy RP. Orthodontic biomaterials: from the past to thepresent. Angle Orthod. 2002;72:501–512.9. Verstrynge A, Humbeeck JV, Willems G. In-vitro evaluationof the material characteristics of stainless steel and beta-titanium orthodontic wires. Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop.2006;130:460–470.10. Krishnan V, Kumar KJ. Mechanical properties and surfacecharacteristics of three archwire alloys. Angle Orthod. 2004;74:825–831.11. Acharya KA, Jayade VP. Metallurgic properties of stainlesssteel orthodontic archwires: a comparative study. TrendsBiomater Artif Organs. 2005;18:125–136.12. Birkenkamp S, Pancherz H. Comparison of three brands ofround stainless steel wires used in the Begg and Tip-Edgetechniques. Aust Orthod J. 2004;20:65–69.13. Hunt NP, Cunningham SJ, Golden CG, Sherif M. An inves-tigation into the effects of polishing on surface hardness andcorrosion of orthodontic archwires. Angle Orthod. 1999;69:433–440.14. Reed-Hill RE, Abbaschian R. Physical Metallurgy Principles.Boston, Mass: PWS Publishing Company; 1994:664–670.15. Zinelis S, Annousaki O, Eliades T, Makou M. Metallographicstructure and hardness of titanium orthodontic brackets. JOrofac Orthop. 2003;64:426–433.

Structure, Composition, and Mechanical Properties of Australian Orthodontic Wires

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Structure, Composition, and Mechanical Properties of Australian Orthodontic Wires

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