Omnivorous Heteroptera constitute an important component of predatory guilds with high potential for biological control. Understanding the relative effects of plant feeding on the suppression of prey by omnivores could be an important element for improving biological control strategies. In the current paper, the effects of different plant food sources on the predation rate of the omnivorous predator Macrolophus pygmaeus (Hemiptera: Miridae) were examined. In all the experiments, second instar nymphs of the aphid Myzus persicae (Homoptera: Aphididae) were used as prey at different densities. First, we evaluated the rate at which the predator preyed on M. persicae at various prey densities on pepper and eggplant leaves. Then, using eggplant flowers or pollen as additional food sources, we estimated predator efficiency for three different prey densities. The predation rate was not affected by the type of plant leaf used. However, the results showed that the predation rate of M. pygmaeus was significantly reduced when flowers or pollen were provided at high prey densities. The importance of these results in understanding the influence of phytophagy on predation rates of omnivorous predators is discussed

Fantinou, A.

Maselou, D.

Perdikis, D.

Digital Repository of Hellenic Managing Authority of the Operational Programme &quot;Education and Lifelong Learning&quot; (EDULLL)

Integrated Control in Protected Crops, Mediterranean Climate IOBC-WPRS Bulletin Vol. 80, 2012 pp. 91-95  91   Influence of phytophagous behaviour on prey consumption by Macrolophus pygmaeus   D. Maselou1, D. Perdikis2 A. Fantinou1  1Laboratory of Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Agricultural University of Athens, Iera Odos 75, 118 55, Athens, Greece; 2Laboratory of Agricultural Zoology and Entomology, Agricultural University of Athens, Iera Odos 75, 118 55, Athens, Greece   Abstract: Omnivorous Heteroptera constitute an important component of predatory guilds with high potential for biological control. Understanding the relative effects of plant feeding on the suppression of prey by omnivores could be an important element for improving biological control strategies. In the current paper, the effects of different plant food sources on the predation rate of the omnivorous predator Macrolophus pygmaeus (Hemiptera: Miridae) were examined. In all the experiments, second instar nymphs of the aphid Myzus persicae (Homoptera: Aphididae) were used as prey at different densities. First, we evaluated the rate at which the predator preyed on M. persicae at various prey densities on pepper and eggplant leaves. Then, using eggplant flowers or pollen as additional food sources, we estimated predator efficiency for three different prey densities. The predation rate was not affected by the type of plant leaf used. However, the results showed that the predation rate of  M. pygmaeus was significantly reduced when flowers or pollen were provided at high prey densities. The importance of these results in understanding the influence of phytophagy on predation rates of omnivorous predators is discussed.  Key words: Macrolophus pygmaeus, predator, phytophagy, pollen, flower   Introduction   Omnivory is the consumption of resources from more than one trophic level and is a frequent feeding strategy in terrestrial plant-inhabiting arthropod communities (Coll & Guershon, 2002). Most predators and parasitoids feed on plant-provided food (nectar, pollen) or engage in herbivory during at least part of their life cycle. Miridae (Heteroptera) are a family with very diverse feeding habits that include phytophagous, omnivorous and strictly predator species (Wheeler, 2001). Some predatory mirids are also considered to be the main natural enemies of several arthropod pests in managed and natural ecosystems (Perdikis et al., 2011).  The omnivorous predator Μacrolophus pygmaeus (Hemiptera: Miridae) is a major native natural enemy of several pests that seriously damage tomato and other vegetable crops and commonly colonize vegetable crops in both greenhouses and open fields in Mediterranean countries (Albajes & Alomar, 1999; Lykouressis et al., 1999-2000). This predator can also successfully develop without prey and lays eggs when feeding on plants (Hansen et al., 1999; Perdikis & Lykouressis 2000, 2002, 2004). Studies have also proved that M. pygmaeus nymphs can successfully reach adulthood when fed exclusively on bee pollen (Perdikis & Lykouressis, 2000) and on stamens cut from fully blooming flowers of the weed Ecballium elaterium (Cucurbitaceae), without any other plant or prey material and with only a water source (moistened cotton) (Perdikis & Lykouressis, 2000). Perdikis & Lykouressis (2000) reported that when bee pollen pellets were added to a diet of eggplant leaves, the developmental period of M. pygmaeus was significantly shortened and completed within a period similar to when it was fed on eggplant leaves with the aphid prey Myzus persicae. 92  Furthermore, pollen supported the development and fecundity of M. pygmaeus (Maleki et al., 2006). Plant feeding by mirid predators has been reported to be more intense in cases of prey shortage (Castañé et al., 2011). It has also been proven that foraging on low-quality plant food sources resulted in increased prey consumption (Eubanks & Denno, 2000) and vice versa (Robinson et al., 2008). The searching behaviour and feeding rate of a foraging predator can also be affected by the physical characteristics of plants, such as the density of trichomes on their leaf surfaces (De Clercq et al., 2000). According to Perdikis et al. (1999), the predation rates of M. pygmaeus were affected by the host plant being higher in lower quality plant food (pepper in comparison to eggplant leaves), but only at the highest temperature tested (30°C).  Although pollnivory can support the efficient development and/or reproduction of  M. pygmaeus (Perdikis & Lykouressis, 2000), the influence of plant-provided foods on the rate at which this predator consumes its prey has not been explored. These data are essential for estimating the efficacy of omnivorous predators as biological control agents and would help to further our knowledge of the predator’s behaviour. To investigate this issue, we exposed Myzus persicae, as prey, to the predator and investigated whether its impact was influenced by plant species and/or the presence of plant-provided food. We addressed two specific questions: 1) Did plant species have any effect on the predation rate? 2) Did the presence of an alternative food source, such as plant pollen or flowers, influence the results obtained? First, we tested the response of M. pygmaeus to prey density on the leaves of two plant species. Then, we used three different prey densities, simulating conditions of limited to high prey availability, in a plant species to test the influence of plant-provided food on prey consumption by the predator.   Material and methods  The experiments took place in plastic Petri dishes (Ø 9cm, 1.5cm height) with a mesh-covered hole in the lid (Ø 3cm) to reduce the accumulation of humidity. A leaf from one of either plant: sweet pepper (cv. Vidi) or eggplant (cv. Bonika F1), was placed on its abaxial surface on top of a layer of cotton wool moistened with water. 5th instar nymphs of M. pygmaeus were used in all the experiments. These were obtained from 1st or 2nd instar nymphs that were transferred from potted caged egg or pepper plants together with eggs of Ephestia kuehniella that were kept in wooden framed rearing cages at 25°C, 65 ± 5% RH and with16 hours of light per day. To exclude the effects of variable hunger levels, all the predators were caged on plants that were clean of prey and kept under the same conditions for 24 h prior to their use in the experiments. Each caged plant species was covered with a plastic cylindrical cage  (Ø 11cm, height 30cm) with two rectangular openings (9 x 9cm), covered with fine muslin to allow ventilation. In the first experiment, one 5th instar M. pygmaeus nymph was introduced into each dish, with aphids at different densities, and its predation rate was recorded after a period of 24h. 2nd instar M. persicae nymphs were used as prey in all the experiments and gently placed and evenly distributed on each leaf. The prey densities used were: 2, 4, 8, 16, 20, 24 and 32 prey items per dish and 10 replicates were made at each prey density level used.  In a second experiment, one flower at full bloom or a significant amount of pollen was introduced into each dish in addition to the leaf with the aphids. These flowers and the pollen were collected from mature plants grown as previously described. In these treatments, the same methodology was used as described in the experiment in which predation rates were recorded on different leaves; the prey densities selected were: 4, 12 and 24 aphids per leaf. These prey densities were selected based on results from a previous study which had shown  that predator saturation occurrM. persicae nymphs were used as prey (Fantinou Data on the predation rate were analyzed using a 2 way(eggplant vs. pepper) and prey density as factors. Antransformed data. Comparisons among means were performed using the TukeyAnalyses were conducted with the JMP statistical package (v. 8 SAS Institute, 2008).  Results and discussion  On both plants the rate of prey consumption by theincreased (Figure 1). However, aphid mortality eventually declined due tostarting when prey density was greater than 20 items per leaf. Although the same general pattern of prey consumption was recorded, the predation rate seemed to level off earlier on pepper plants than on eggplants, but no significant differences were foundP = 0.2841). The predation rate was, however, significantly affected by prey density (F = 130.368; P < 0.0001). According to Perdikis locate and consume its prey more easily on pepper plants because their leaves are less hairy than those of egg-plants.     Figure 1: Predation rate of Macrolophus either an eggplant or pepper plant ed at a prey density of almost 24 items when 2et al., 2008). -ANOVA with the plant species alyses were conducted using log predator increased as prey density et al. (1999), the predator may be able to pygmaeus on 2nd instar nymphs of  leaf. 93 nd instar  --Kramer HSD.   predation, with this  (F = 1.1558;     Myzus persicae on 94  Many arthropod predators may rely on plant-provided alternative food sources such as pollen or nectar, the availability of which is unlikely to be influenced by predator consumption (Eubanks & Denno, 2000). According to the results presented here,  M. pygmaeus did not reject aphids in favour of pollen or flowers when they were present. However, we found that the predation rate was significantly affected when the predator was offered an eggplant flower or pollen in addition to the prey at the highest prey density  (F = 9.9938, P = 0.0001). The pollen and flowers had no effect on prey consumption at prey densities of 4 and 12, but, at the prey density of 24 aphids, significantly fewer prey items were consumed in the presence of either pollen or flowers (Table 1). The reduced predation rates of M. pygmaeus observed in the presence of an alternative food source would therefore seem to indicate pollen or flower utilization by the predator. This result suggests that flowers and aphids are partially substitutable in the M. pygmaeus diet. However, this behaviour only occurred at high prey densities, perhaps indicating that there may be a limit beyond which prey consumption can be replaced by feeding on plant material. It has been reported though that when prey density drops below a certain threshold, optimally foraging predators aiming to reach satiation may switch to alternative food, either by including this food in their diets or by moving to the alternative food source (van Baalen et al., 2001). Although the reduced prey consumption observed when a flower was added to the experimental arena was only recorded in a period of 24h, this may be attributed to the spatial complexity that may reduce the time available for prey searching and feeding by the foraging predator (Hoddle, 2003).    Table 1. Predation rate of Macrolophus pygmaeus on 2nd instar nymphs of Myzus persicae with eggplant leaf or leaf supplemented with flower or pollen.   Prey density offered Predation rate (Mean± SE) Eggplant leaf Eggplant leaf & flower Eggplant leaf & pollen 4 3.80 ± 0.42 Aa 3.40 ± 0.84 Aa 3.80 ± 0.42 Aa 12 9.00 ± 2.78 Ab 8.10 ± 2.85 Ab 8.10 ± 2.56 Ab 24 16.20 ±1.61 Ac 9.80 ± 2.62 Bb 11.30 ± 3.92 Bb  Means within the same column followed by the same lower case letter and in the same row by the same upper case letter are not significantly different (Tukey–Kramer HSD test, α = 0.05).   The results of the present study revealed that the predatory efficiency of M. pygmaeus declined in the presence of alternative plant resources. It has been reported that this predator can survive and reproduce at different rates depending on the plant substrate available and without feeding on prey (Perdikis & Lykouressis, 2004). The relative importance of alternative food recourses on the ability of the predator to control herbivore pests should therefore be explored further.    Acknowledgements  This project was co-funded by the European Union - European Social Fund (ESF) & National Sources, within the framework of the “HRAKLEITOS II” programme of the “Operational Programme for Education and Life Long Learning” of the Hellenic Ministry of Education, Life Long Learning and religious affairs. 95  References   Albajes, R. & Alomar, O. 1999: Current and potential use of polyphagous predators. In: Integrated Pest and Disease Management in Greenhouse Crops, eds. 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Influence of phytophagous behaviour on prey consumption by Macrolophus pygmaeus

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Influence of phytophagous behaviour on prey consumption by Macrolophus pygmaeus

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Influence of phytophagous behaviour on prey consumption by Macrolophus pygmaeus

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