In literature a paucity of issues to measure cognitive functioning in the blinds is available (Rich, Anderson, 1965; Pichot, 1968; Newland, 1969; Vander Kolk, 1977; Nelson, Joyce, Dias, 2002) but in these reviews it is clear that they are not yet widely available without further support for research and development. This is particularly true for blind children. The purpose of the current study is to provide a proposal version of some of the Visual Performance Subtests adapted to blind children

Cassar, Carolina

Lucchese, Franco

English

La literatura dispone de muy pocas herramientas para medir los procesos cognitivos en las personas ciegas (Rich, Anderson, 1965; Pichot, 1968; Newland, 1969; Vander Kolk, 1977; Nelson, Joyce, Dias, 2002), pero en estas revisiones está claro que todavía no se encuentran ampliamente disponibles sin más apoyo para la investigación y el desarrollo. Esto es particularmente cierto para los niños ciegos. El propósito del presente estudio es proporcionar una versión propuesta de algunas de las subpruebas de rendimiento visual adaptadas para niños ciegos.In literature a paucity of issues to measure cognitive functioning in the blinds is available (Rich, Anderson, 1965; Pichot, 1968; Newland, 1969; Vander Kolk, 1977; Nelson, Joyce, Dias, 2002) but in these reviews it is clear that they are not yet widely available without further support for research and development. This is particularly true for blind children. The purpose of the current study is to provide a proposal version of some of the Visual Performance Subtests adapted to blind children.peerReviewe

Dehesa. Repositorio Institucional de la Universidad de Extremadura

ABSTRACTIn literature a paucity of issues to measure cognitive functioning in the blinds is available (Rich,Anderson, 1965;  Pichot, 1968; Newland, 1969; Vander Kolk, 1977; Nelson, Joyce, Dias, 2002) butin these reviews it is clear that they are not yet widely available without further support for researchand development. This is particularly true for blind children. The purpose of the current study is toprovide a proposal version of some of the Visual Performance Subtests adapted to blind children.Keywords: cognitive tests, blind, intellingence tests, haptic learning, sense of spaceINTRODUCTIONTest instruments that measure intellectual functioning are essential to provide adequate assess-ment and management in clinical setting, and also in orientation and rehabilitation. The most popu-lar cognitive tests are the Weschler Scales, that have a Verbal section and a Performance section forculture free abilities. However there is no version of the Weschler Scales for visually impaired peo-ple.In order to measure cognitive functioning in the blinds, Vander Kolk (1977) used Weschler AdultIntelligence Scale Verbal subtests, and recently Tobin and colleagues (2010) administered to a sam-ple of 85 children and adults with retinoblastoma only verbal intelligence tests. Such an approachhas been deemed inadequate because nonverbal cognitive abilities are overlooked altogether.Other tests measuring performance skills without requiring vision, such as the D48 (Pichot,1968) and Ravens Tactual Progressive Matrices (Rich, Anderson, 1965), have no long been distrib-uted.Nelson, Dias, and Joyce (2002) standardized the Cognitive Test for the Blind that assesses ver-bal and nonverbal domains. There are five subtest that measure performance skills. In HapticInternational Journal of Developmental and Educational PsychologyINFAD Revista de Psicología, Nº1-Vol.2, 2016. ISSN: 0214-9877. pp:109-116 109PSICOLOGÍA, CIENCIA Y PROFESIÓN: MIRANDO AL FUTUROPSYCHOMETRIC TEST FOR BLIND ADULTS AND CHILDREN, CRITICAL ISSUES AND PERSPECTIVESCarolina CassarFranco LuccheseDipartimento di Psicologia Dinamica e Clinica, Sapienza Università di RomaFranco.lucchese@uniroma1.itFecha de Recepción: 8 Enero 2016Fecha de Admisión: 15 Febrero 2016http://dx.doi.org/10.17060/ijodaep.2016.n1.v2.150Category Learning the examinee is asked to feel stimuli and asked to tell what number between oneand four the item represents. In Haptic Category Memory the examinee is presented with selecteditems from the previous subtest and an equal number of distractor items. He is asked to indicatewhether he has felt them before. In Haptic Memory Recognition various textures mounted on formi-ca tiles are presented and tactually examined, then removed. The examinee has to remember the tex-tures when presented with an equal number of distractor items. In Spatial Pattern Recall various pat-terns presented, then removed. The examinee then must recreate the pattern from memory. Finallyin Spatial Analysis the examinee matches shapes and assembles patterns or configurations usingwooden shapes and tactile frame for reference. The CBT is appropriated for use with people four-teen years of age and older, but not with children.Newland (1979) developed the Blind Learning Aptitude Test for visually impaired children.Standardized upon 961 educationally blind children, it has high reliability and validity. The test itemsare embossed on Braille paper and regarded as falling into six categories. The first category consistsof items in which the child is required to identify which of six test elements was different. The sec-ond category consists of items in which the child is asked to identify which of five possible responseelements was the same as the stimulus element. A third category is a “What comes next?” type inwhich the child is presented with three stimulus elements representing some kind of progression.He is then asked to examine six possible response elements and to designate the one of them whichshould come next in the series of stimulus elements. A fourth category is made up of items whichinvolved a relationship. There are three stimulus elements and the child is asked to identify the ele-ment among six possible response elements which completes the relationship. The fifth categorypresents a figure-completion and pattern-completion type of problem to the child. The sixth catego-ry consists of matrices which, when completed, would be made up of nine elements. Eight of thestimulus elements are supplied, and the ninth one is to be selected by the child from six possibleresponses elements. However the data are too old to administrate this test nowadays.In 1972 Curtis W. Scott published a report of a conference named “Development and Applicationof Intelligence Tests for the Blind: A research Utilization Conference.” The purpose of the project wasto inquire into current status of development, past use, availability, and future planning of intelli-gence tests for the visually impaired people. The project procedure was that research utilization con-ference involving the authors of the tests, clinical examiners who use the tests, and representativesof agencies and professional groups who require the information provided through the tests. Theconclusions of the conference were the following. First, the tests were not available in sufficientquantities for research or clinical use. The prospect of extensive production of the test was limiteddue to problems of production technology, cost, and coordinated administrative effort. Moreover,the exact set of professionals administrating intelligence tests to visually impaired people was notclearly identified for easy access, training and data collection. Finally the feasibility of data collectionin a service setting under that conditions seemed economically prohibitive.Some participants questioned the need for special intelligence tests for visually impaired peopleas opposed to the use of those verbal measures and other measures which are applicable to theblind from intelligence tests for the sighted. They believed that there may be complications from theloss of visual sense which affect verbal learning including particularly the effect of vision on conceptdevelopment as related to the time of onset of visual disability and including variations in schoolexperience with children and adults moving through the academic continuum, as well as the socialand personal and medical trauma occasionally related to visual disability. It was agreed that the testsshould be standardized on visually impaired people, and that prior to data collection a careful iden-tification of the parameters of the visual disability should be characterized for each subject so thatsub-population data could be extracted and hopefully more meaningful use of the tests mightInternational Journal of Developmental and Educational Psychology110 INFAD Revista de Psicología, Nº1-Vol.2, 2016. ISSN: 0214-9877. pp:109-116PSYCHOMETRIC TEST FOR BLIND ADULTS AND CHILDREN, CRITICAL ISSUES AND PERSPECTIVESemerge. Anyway it is extremely difficult to produce a test which can serve all masters. This is truein case of multiple disabilities. Then it was pointed out that the time required to administer some tests was too extensive.Finally it became clear that tests were not and could no become widely available without furthersupport for research and development.OUR PROPOSAL The purpose of the current study is to provide a version of some of the Wechsler PerformanceSubtests for blind children. Nonverbal intelligence is assessed through five subtests. In Block Design child is asked to put together rough and smooth block surfaces in a patternaccording to a model. The space is delimited by the use of a tactile drawing board with a rubber sur-face, which is an instrument known by blind people. It assesses orientation, and the ability to repro-duce an haptic pattern (fig 1).(fig. 1)In Symbol Search children are given rows of symbols and target symbols and asked to markwhether or not the target symbols appear in each row. The items are drawn on tactile drawing boardpaper in order to make blind children able to explore them. It assesses processing speed, attentionand the ability to recognize and discriminate details (fig. 2). In Playing Cards Sequencing children are asked to provide a series of playing cards back to theexaminer in a predetermined order: from 1 to 6 and in couples. Cards are marked with a thick griptape to be haptically recognized. It measures working memory, concentration, orientation and  plan-ning abilities (figg. 3.1, 3.2, 3.3).International Journal of Developmental and Educational PsychologyINFAD Revista de Psicología, Nº1-Vol.2, 2016. ISSN: 0214-9877. pp:109-116 111PSICOLOGÍA, CIENCIA Y PROFESIÓN: MIRANDO AL FUTURO                      T                       N         I                                                                                                                             (fig. 2) fig. 3.1International Journal of Developmental and Educational Psychology112 INFAD Revista de Psicología, Nº1-Vol.2, 2016. ISSN: 0214-9877. pp:109-116PSYCHOMETRIC TEST FOR BLIND ADULTS AND CHILDREN, CRITICAL ISSUES AND PERSPECTIVES                                                                                                                                                fig. 3.2fig. 3.3In Coding it is asked to provide a series of  wooden elements (squared, circular, tall, short, withor without a circle in the middle) back to the examiner in a pattern according to a model. It assess-es concentration, attention to details, and the ability to reproduce a pattern (figg. 4.1, 4.2, 4.3).International Journal of Developmental and Educational PsychologyINFAD Revista de Psicología, Nº1-Vol.2, 2016. ISSN: 0214-9877. pp:109-116 113PSICOLOGÍA, CIENCIA Y PROFESIÓN: MIRANDO AL FUTURO f                   wooden elements (squared, circular, tall, s                                                                                                             ooden ele ents (squared, circular, tall, s                                                                                                fig. 4.1fig. 4.2fig. 4.3International Journal of Developmental and Educational Psychology114 INFAD Revista de Psicología, Nº1-Vol.2, 2016. ISSN: 0214-9877. pp:109-116PSYCHOMETRIC TEST FOR BLIND ADULTS AND CHILDREN, CRITICAL ISSUES AND PERSPECTIVES                   wooden elements (squared, circular, tall, s                                                                                            .  f                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  Finally in Labyrinth child is asked to find the way to go out from the obstacles. Contrary to theWISC the labyrinth is not drawn but in 3D, so that it can be haptically manipulated. Although in theWISC-IV it is facultative we decide to include it because in blind children it is very useful for evalu-ating sense of direction the space, the ability to make spatial cognitive maps, and planning (fog. 5). (fig. 5)DISCUSSIONThe administration to a blind thirteen years old boy has shown good results. Haptic explorationis not immediate as the visual one, thus we didn’t consider timing. Items were neither too simpleneither too difficult. The examinee was successful in all the subtests. He also said he had alreadydone this type of  exercise during his rehabilitation, so it could have influenced his performance.  Itis obvious that a standardization is need, and this work is its first step. Globally the test resultedgood at measuring performance abilities in blind children in a limited time (forty minutes). REFERENCESAndreou, Y., McCall, S. (2010). Using the voice of the child who is blind as a tool for exploring spa-tial perception. British Journal of Visual Impairment, 9, pp. 113-129. Dulin, D. (2007). Effects of the use of raised line drawings on blind people’s cognition. EuropeanJournal of Special Needs Education, 22, 3, pp. 341-353.Curtis, W. S. (1972). Development and Application of Intelligence Tests for the Blind: A ResearchUtilization Conference. Final Report. Washington, D. C. : ERIC Clearinghouse.Dunlea, A.(1989). Vision and the emergence of meaning: Blind and sighted children’s early language.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Fraiberg, S. (1977). Insights from the blind. New York:. Basic Books. Hatwell, Y. (2003). Psychologie cognitive de la cécité précoce. Paris : Dunod. 82Legge, G. E., Madison, C. M., & Mansfield, J. S. (1999). Measuring reading speed with the MNReadtest. Visual Impairment Research, 1, pp.133-145. Miller, L. (1992). Diderot reconsidered: Visual impairment and auditory compensation. Journal ofVisual Impairment & Blindness, 86, pp. 206-210.Nelson, P. A, Dial, J. G., Joyce, A. (2002). Validation of the cognitive test for the blind as an assess-International Journal of Developmental and Educational PsychologyINFAD Revista de Psicología, Nº1-Vol.2, 2016. ISSN: 0214-9877. pp:109-116 115PSICOLOGÍA, CIENCIA Y PROFESIÓN: MIRANDO AL FUTURO                                                                                                                                               ment of intellectual functioning. Rehabilitation Psychology, 47 (2), pp. 184-193.Newland, T. E. (1979). The Blind Learning Aptitude Test. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness,73, pp. 134-139. Orsini, A., Pezzuti, L., Picone, L. (2012). Weschler Intelligence Scale for Children-IV. Manuale.Calenzano: Giunti Organizzazioni Speciali. Orsini, L.T. (2007). Educazione psicomotoria del bambino minorato della vista. Tiflologia per l’integrazione, n. 2, pp. 111-125. Pérez-Pereira, M. (1994), Imitation, repetitions, routines and child ’s analysis of language: insightsfrom the blind, Journal of Child Language, 12, 3, pp. 317-337. Rich, C. C., Anderson, R. P. (1965), A tactual form of the progressive matrices for use with blindchildren. 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Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children – Third Edition. The PsychologicalCorporation, San Antonio, TX.Wetzel, R., & Knowlton, M. (2000). A comparison of print and braille reading rates on three readingtasks. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 94, pp. 146-154. Witkin, H. A., Birnbaum, J., Lomonaco, S., Lehr, S., Herman, J. L.(1968). Cognitive patterning incongenitally totally blind children. Child Development,39, pp. 767–786. Wolman, B. (1985) Handbook of intelligence: Theories, measurements, and applications. Wiley, NewYork.International Journal of Developmental and Educational Psychology116 INFAD Revista de Psicología, Nº1-Vol.2, 2016. ISSN: 0214-9877. pp:109-116PSYCHOMETRIC TEST FOR BLIND ADULTS AND CHILDREN, CRITICAL ISSUES AND PERSPECTIVES

Psychometric test for blind adults and children, critical issues and perspectives

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