Turpin, William

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Names, Romanoxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195170726.001.0001/acref-9780195170726-e-853In the late Republic and early Empire a male Roman citizen typically had three names (thetria nomina): a praenomen (first name), a nomen (also called nomen gentilicium, identifyingthe clan or gens), and a cognomen (a nickname, identifying a particular branch of a gens).Thus for Gaius Julius Caesar his nomen “Julius” showed that he was of the gens Julia, hiscognomen “Caesar” identified his branch as that of Julii Caesares, and his praenomen“Gaius” distinguished him from any brothers. Because foreigners and slaves typically hadonly single names, three names were so typical of a male Roman citizen that the phrase trianomina was synonymous with Roman citizenship.Roman women in the same period had names formed from the nomina gentilicia of theirfathers; thus Caesar's daughter was simply Julia. If a father had more than one daughter,then each was identified informally by an indication of birth order: Julia Maior (the Elder)versus Julia Minor (the Younger), or Julia Prima, Julia Secunda, Julia Tertia, and so on. Inpublic contexts a daughter could be identified by the name of her father or husband; thefamous Clodia, married to Quintus Caecilius Metellus Celer, was Clodia Metelli—“Metellus’Clodia”—to distinguish her from her sisters.The nomen gentilicium was originally a patronymic, emerging as early as the eighth centurybce. It was by far the most important identifier—hence it was known simply as the nomen—and was inherited by all sons and (as described above) daughters.By the seventh century bce the Romans, as well as most other Italians, developed a systemof praenomen plus nomen, though female praenomina disappeared in the fourth centurybce. The praenomen merely distinguished siblings, and there was little variety: 99 percent ofall known Roman men in the Republican period had one of seventeen praenomina. Thuspraenomina were usually abbreviated as follows: A. = Aulus; Ap(p). = Appius; C. = Gaius; Cn.= Gnaeus; D. = Decimus; L. = Lucius; M’. = Manius; M. = Marcus; N. = Numerius; P. = Publius;Q. = Quintus; Ser. = Servius; Sex. = Sextus; Sp. = Spurius; T. = Titus; Tib. = Tiberius; V. = Vibius.The cognomen appears in the fifth century bce as a nickname, to designate the branch of aparticular gens. The practice was originally aristocratic and spread to the lower classes onlyin the first century bce. Even then it was optional; Gaius Marius and Marcus Antonius hadno cognomina. A cognomen was originally bestowed on one male family member and thenwas inherited by his descendants. Many cognomina were derived from physical attributes,often unflattering ones: Cicero = “chickpea” (i.e., wart), Crassus = “fat,” Calvus = “bald.”Others were derived from achievements, accidents, or hopes: Pictor = “painter” (i.e.,someone who paid for painting), Caesar = “cut” (from the womb), Felix = “fortunate.”1/3Cognomina could also be derived from foreign languages, especially Greek. Evenembarrassing cognomina were a source of aristocratic pride, since what mattered most wasthe antiquity of the branch.An agnomen was a name added to the tria nomina in a person's lifetime. Successful generalscould add names commemorating their conquests: Africanus, Macedonicus, Creticus.Agnomina could also be used in adoptions to preserve the memory of a man's original gens:when Gaius Octavius (the future emperor Augustus) was adopted by Gaius Julius Caesar, hebecame Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus, though he never used the agnomen.In ordinary discourse Romans used either praenomen and nomen (Marcus Tullius) orpraenomen and cognomen (Marcus Cicero). Use of all three names was extremely formal,and use of nomen or cognomen alone was informal. Use of just the praenomen was eitherintimate or insulting.A freed male slave typically took the praenomen and nomen of his former master andadded his own personal name as a cognomen; Cicero's secretary, for instance, becameMarcus Tullius Tiro. Foreigners who became citizens honored their benefactors in the sameway.The tria nomina did not survive the first century ce, largely because of the massiveemancipation of slaves and enfranchisement of foreigners. The new citizens usually had thenomina of prominent Romans, especially emperors: there were now huge numbers of Julii,Claudii, Flavii, and Aurelii. They also found the use of praenomina unfamiliar anduncongenial. The cognomen thus became more important as a means of identification andwas treated with more flexibility.For the first time a mother's line of descent could be commemorated, in a cognomen: theson of a Julia might have the cognomen Julianus. Siblings, including women, could bedistinguished by cognomina rather than by praenomina: the emperors Titus and Domitian,who were brothers, were both named Titus Flavius, but their cognomina were Vespasianusand Domitianus, respectively.BibliographyAdams, J. N. “Conventions of Naming in Cicero.” Classical Quarterly, new ser., 28 (1978): 145–166.Kajanto, Iiro. The Latin Cognomina. Societas Scientiarum Fennica. Helsinki, Finland, 1965.Salway, Benet. “What's in a Name? A Survey of Roman Onomastic Practice from c. 700 B.C. toA.D. 700.” Journal of Roman Studies 84 (1994): 124–145.William Turpin2/33/3

Names, Roman

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