Plants which are used by traditional healers in Tanzania have been evaluated to obtain preliminary data of their toxicity using the brine shrimps test. The results indicate that 9 out of 44 plant species whose extracts were tested exhibited high toxicity with LC50 values below 20µg/ml. These include Aloe lateritia Engl. (Aloaceae) [19.1µg/ml], Cassia abbreviata Oliv. (Caesalpiniaceae) [12.7µg/ml], Croton scheffleri Pax (Euphorbiaceae) [13.7µg/ml], Hymenodactyon parvifolium Brig (Rubiaceae) [13.4µg/ml], Kigelia Africana L. (Bignoniaceae) [7.2µg/ml], and Ocimum suave Oliv. (Labiatae) [16.7µg/ml]. Twelve plants gave LC50 values between 21 and 50µg/ml, 11 plants gave LC50 values between 50 and 100 µg/ml, and 18 plants gave LC50 values greater than 100 µg/ml

Hamza, Omar JM

Kapingu, Modest C

Masimba, Pax J

Matee, Mecky IN

Mbwambo, Zakaria H

Mikx, Frans

Moshi, Mainen J

Nondo, Ramadhani OS

van den Beukel, Carolien JP

van der Ven, André JAM

Verweij, Paul E

PubMed

Plants which are used by traditional healers in Tanzania have been evaluated to obtain preliminary data of their toxicity using the brine shrimps test. The results indicate that 9 out of 44 plant species whose extracts were tested exhibited high toxicity with LC(50) values below 20 microg/ml. These include Aloe lateritia Engl. (Aloaceae) [19.1 microg/ml], Cassia abbreviata Oliv. (Caesalpiniaceae) [12.7 microg/ml], Croton scheffleri Pax (Euphorbiaceae) [13.7 microg/ml], Hymenodactyon parvifolium Brig (Rubiaceae) [13.4 microg/ml], Kigelia Africana L. (Bignoniaceae) [7.2 microg/ml], and Ocimum suave Oliv. (Labiatae) [16.7 microg/ml]. Twelve plants gave LC(50) values between 21 and 50 microg/ml, 11 plants gave LC(50) values between 50 and 100 microg/ml, and 18 plants gave LC(50) values greater than 100 microg/ml

van den Beukel, Carolien J P

Hamza, Omar J M

Nondo, Ramadhani O S

Matee, Mecky I N

van der Ven, André J A M

Digital Library of the Tanzania Health Community

English

A simplified method of evaluating dose-effect experiments.

Antifungal activity of some Tanzanian plants used traditionally for the treatment of fungal infections.

Brine shrimp: a convenient general bioassay for active plant constituents.

Clinical pharmacokinetics of fluconazole in superficial and systemic mycoses.

Current and future approaches to antimycotic treatment in the era of resistant fungi and immunocompromised hosts.

Drug utilization, prescribing habits and patients

Emergence of fluconazole-resistant strains of Candida albicans in patients with reccurent oro-pharyngeal candidosis and human immunodefficiency virus infection.

Epidemiology of oral candidiasis in HIV infected patients: Colonization, infection, treatment, and emergence of fluconazole resistance.

Mucosal candidiasis caused by non-albicans species of Candida in HIV-positive patients.

Rare Jatropha multifida intoxication in two children.

Report on the global AIDS epidemic.

Resistance of Candida albicans to fluconazole during treatment of oropharyngeal candidiasis in a patient with AIDS: documentation by in vitro susceptibility testing and DNA subtype analysis.

Studies on poisonous plants in the state of Sao Paulo: toxicological expts. on 27 plants which have been suspected of toxicity.

Brine Shrimp Toxicity Evaluation of Some Tanzanian Plants Used Traditionally for the Treatment of Fungal Infections.

Plants which are used by traditional healers in Tanzania have been evaluated to obtain preliminary data of their toxicity using the brine shrimps test.  The results indicate that 9 out of 44 plant species whose extracts were tested exhibited high toxicity with LC50 values below 20g/ml.  These include Aloe lateritia Engl. (Aloaceae) [19.1g/ml], Cassia abbreviata Oliv. (Caesalpiniaceae) [12.7g/ml], Croton scheffleri Pax  (Euphorbiaceae) [13.7g/ml], Hymenodactyon parvifolium Brig (Rubiaceae) [13.4g/ml], Kigelia Africana L. (Bignoniaceae) [7.2g/ml], and Ocimum suave Oliv. (Labiatae) [16.7g/ml]. Twelve plants gave LC50 values between 21 and 50g/ml, 11 plants gave LC50 values between 50 and 100 g/ml, and 18 plants gave LC50 values greater than 100 g/ml

Moshi, Mainen Julius

van den Beukel, Carolien J. P.

Hamza, Omar J. M.

Mbwambo, Zakaria H.

Nondo, Ramadhani O. S.

Masimba, Pax J.

Matee, Mecky I. N.

Kapingu, Modest C.

Verweij, Verweij E.

ATHMSI Journals

 219Afr. J. Trad. CAM (2007) 4 (2): 219 - 225   Research Paper                                                          Afr. J. Traditional, Complementary and  Alternative Medicines www.africanethnomedicines.net ISSN 0189-6016©2007  BRINE SHRIMP TOXICITY EVALUATION OF SOME TANZANIAN PLANTS USED TRADITIONALLY FOR THE TREATMENT OF FUNGAL INFECTIONS   Mainen J. Moshi*a, Carolien J.P. van den Beukelb, Omar J.M. Hamzac, Zakaria H. Mbwamboa, Ramadhani O.S. Nondoa, Pax J.Masimbaa, Mecky I.N. Mateed, Modest C.Kapingua, Frans Mikxf, Paul E. Verweije, and André J.A.M. van der Venb.  aInstitute of Traditional Medicine,Muhimbili University College of Health Sciences (MUCHS), Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.,bDepartment of General Internal Medicine, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical        Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands,.cDepartment of Oral Surgery and Oral Pathology, MUCHS, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, .dDepartment of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, MUCHS, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, .eWHO Collaborating Centre, Dentistry, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.,fDepartment of Medical Microbiology, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands. E-mail: mmoshi@muchs.ac.tz;  Tel: 255 22 2150096; Fax 255 22 2150465.  Abstract  Plants which are used by traditional healers in Tanzania have been evaluated to obtain preliminary data of their toxicity using the brine shrimps test.  The results indicate that 9 out of 44 plant species whose extracts were tested exhibited high toxicity with LC50 values below 20µg/ml.  These include Aloe lateritia Engl. (Aloaceae) [19.1µg/ml], Cassia abbreviata Oliv. (Caesalpiniaceae) [12.7µg/ml], Croton scheffleri Pax  (Euphorbiaceae) [13.7µg/ml], Hymenodactyon parvifolium Brig (Rubiaceae) [13.4µg/ml], Kigelia Africana L. (Bignoniaceae) [7.2µg/ml], and Ocimum suave Oliv. (Labiatae) [16.7µg/ml]. Twelve plants gave LC50 values between 21 and 50µg/ml, 11 plants gave LC50 values between 50 and 100 µg/ml, and 18 plants gave LC50 values greater than 100 µg/ml.    Key words: Brine shrimp test; Toxicity evaluation; Traditional antifungal plants  Introduction  In sub Saharan Africa, where 70% of the world cases of HIV/AIDS are found, Candida infections are very common and cause significant morbidity among patients (UNAIDS, 2004). Among problems that hamper effective management of Candida infections in these countries include;  limited number of effective antifungal agents, toxicity of the available antifungal agents, resistance of Candida to commonly used antifungals, relapse of candida infections and the high cost of antifungal agents (Debruyne, 1997; Sangeorzan et al., 1994).   Reports of resistance to commonly used antifungal agents like fluconazole abound (Ruhnke et al., 1994; Redding et al., 1994), including shifts from Candida albicans to less sensitive species such as Candida glabrata and Candida krusei (Bastert et al., 2001; Powderly, 1992).  When relapses occur, the infections tend to be increasingly refractory to treatment. These problems are of even greater relevance to poor countries, where the choice of antifungal agents is rather limited due to limited resources.  In these countries, the most practical option remains to search for cheap alternatives to manage opportunistic infections.  The difficulties associated with the management of Candida infections necessitate the discovery of new antifungal agents, in order to widen the spectrum of activity against Candida and combat strains expressing resistance to the available antifungal agents.   220Moshi et al.,  Afr. J. Trad. CAM (2007) 4 (2): 219 - 225  Plants are widely used in Tanzanian traditional medicine and constitute a potentially useful resource for new and safe drugs for the treatment of opportunistic infections. According to Medicine du Monde, a French non-governmental organisation, in Kagera region, five out of every six HIV patients receive their medical attention from a traditional healer rather than from a hospital or primary health care facility (AIDS Analysis Africa, 1996). Likewise, a survey conducted in Dar es Salaam showed that 21% of the people who seek care from public facilities had first consulted a traditional healer (Kilima et al., 1993). The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the toxicities and/or potential for other biological activities of extracts of the plants that are used by traditional healers in Tanzania for management of fungal infections.    Materials and Methods  Plant collection and identification  Plants reported to be used for the treatment of oral candidiasis and skin fungal infections by the interviewed traditional healers (Table 1) were collected in four regions of Tanzania from February-March 2004. The plants were identified by Mr. Selemani, an experienced botany technician, and voucher specimens are kept at the Herbarium of the Department of Botany, University of Dar es Salaam.  Extraction of plant materials  All plant samples were air-dried and ground. Approximately 400 grams of the plant materials were macerated with 80% methanol at room temperature and after 24 h filtered through Whatman number 1 filter paper. The procedure was repeated three times to ensure exhaustive extraction of the plant material. The extracts were pooled together, concentrated, and the solvent removed by evaporation under reduced pressure in a rotar vapor, at 40°C. The extracts were further dried by freeze-drying and kept in a freezer, at -20°C, until the time of use.  The Brine shrimp lethality test  The brine shrimp lethality test (BST) was used to predict the presence, in the extracts, of cytotoxic activity (Meyer et al., 1982).  Solutions of the extracts were made in DMSO, at varying concentrations, and 30 µl of each incubated in duplicate vials with the brine shrimp larvae in a total volume of 5 ml. Ten brine shrimp larvae were placed in each of the duplicate vials. Brine shrimp larvae were placed in a mixture of DMSO (30 µl) and seawater to serve as a negative control.  Cyclophosphamide, an anticancer drug, was used as a positive control. After 24 h the nauplii were examined against a lighted background, with a magnifying glass and the average number of survived larvae was determined. The mean percentage mortality was plotted against the logarithm of concentrations and the concentration killing fifty percent of the larvae (LC50) was determined from the graph.   Data analysis  The mean results of brine shrimp mortality against the logarithms of concentrations were plotted using the Fig P computer program (Biosoft Inc, USA), which also gives the regression equations. The regression equations were used to calculate LC16, LC50 and LC84 values. Confidence intervals (95% CI) were calculated according to a previously reported method (Litchfield and Wilcoxon, 1949).   Results  Brine shrimp lethality  Among the 65 plant parts collected and belonging to 56 plant species, 50 (76.9%) plant parts of 44 plant species were tested for brine shrimp lethality.  Nine plants showed high toxicity to the shrimps with LC50 values below 20µg/ml (Table 2).  These include Aloe lateritia (19.1µg/ml), Cassia abbreviata (12.7µg/ml), Croton scheffleri (13.7µg/ml), Hymenodactyon parvifolium (13.4µg/ml), Kigelia Africana (7.2µg/ml), and Ocimum suave (16.7µg/ml). Twelve plants gave LC50 values between 21 and 50µg/ml, 11 plants gave LC50 values between 50 and 100 µg/ml, and 18 plants gave LC50 values greater than 100 µg/ml.    221 Table 1.  Herbal plants reported to be used by traditional healers for treatment of fungal infections in Tanzania. Species (Voucher Specimen No.) Family Local name Part usedaLife form Preparation Acacia nilotica (L.) Willd ex Del (OH 58)  Mimosaceae Kloriti S Shrub Topical Acacia robusta subsp Usambarensis (Taub) Brenan (OH 38)  Mimosaceae Mkame L Tree Topical Acalypha fruticosa Forsk.  (OH 56) Euphorbiaceae                                                                                      Siaiti L, R Shrub Topical (L),  Agauria salicifolia Oliv. (OH 45) Ericaceae Mwomboa L Tree TopicalAlbizia anthelmintica (A. Rich) Brogn (OH 3) Mimosaceae Mfuleta R Tree OralAloe lateritia Engl.  (OH 10) Aloaceae Mapunisinyamviri WP Shrub TopicalAnnona senegalensis Purs. (OH 11) Annonaceae Mnene kanda L, R Shrub Topical (L), Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del (OH 17) Balanitaceae Mudughuyu RB Tree TopicalCassia abbreviata Oliv. (OH 20) Caesalpinaceae Mufafati R, SB Tree OralCassia singuena Del (OH 12)  Caesalpinaceae  Muhufia  R Shrub Topical / Oral  Chrysophyllum bangweolense RE Fris (OH 15) Sapotaceae Mseweye RB Tree TopicalCissus petiolata Hook. F. (OH 48) Vitaceae Mswilaswila R Climber TopicalClausena anisata Oliv (OH 6) Rutaceae Mjavikali L,SB,R Shrub OralCommiphora pteleifolia Engl. (OH 34) Bursaraceae Twini ndedemu R Shrub TopicalCordia africana Lam (OH 9) Boraginaceae Mgwengweni R Shrub TopicalCoronopus didymus (L) (OH 47) Cruciferae Kissango WP Herb OralCroton Scheffleri Pax  (OH 24)  Euphorbiaceae Muhalange  R Shrub Oral  Cucumis aculeatus Cogn. (OH 32) Cucurbitaceae Ingángáa F Climber TopicalCyphostemma hildebrandtii (Gilg) Desc. (OH 14) Vitaceae Damanyamwili L Herb TopicalDiospyros usambarensis F.  (OH 26) Ebenaceae Muriorio R Shrub TopicalDrymaria cordata (L) A.Schult (OH 46) Caryophyllaceae Ugurashishi WP Herb TopicalElaeodendron buchananii (Loes)(OH 19) Celastraceae Muhorachwi SB Tree OralElaeodendron schlechteranum  (Loes) (OH 50)  Celastraceae Mkandekande SB Tree Oral Erythrina abyssinica Lam (OH 18)  Papilionaceae Mkalalwanhuwa R Tree Topical Euphorbia heterophylla L. (OH 31)  Euphorbiaceae Loo WP Herb Oral Euphorbia tirucali L.  (OH 57)  Euphorbiaceae  Injokii L Tree Topical Ficus sur. Benth (OH 51) Moraceae Mkuyu SB Tree Oral/TopicalGonatopus boivinii Hook.f. (OH 1) Araceae Kunzulu T Herb Topical  222 Hymenidictyon parvifolium Brig (OH 2) Rubiaceae                                                                                                 Pekawake R Shrub TopicalHypericum roeperanum Schimp. ex A. Rich (OH 44) Gutteferae  Mwambaziwa   L Shrub Topical Indigofera rhynchocarpa Bak. Var (OH 16) Papilionaceae Igangula R Shrub TopicalJatropha multifida L. (OH 53)  Euphorbiaceae Maugwamwipoli L,S,R Shrub Topical Khaya anthotheca (Welw.) C.Dc (OH 52)  Meliaceae Mgolaminzi SB Tree Topical Kigelia africana L. (OH 49) Bignoniaceae Mungungu RB, F Tree OralLannea stuhlmanii Engl. (OH 7) Anacardiaceae Muhungilo L Tree TopicalLobelia giberroa Neumeleg (OH 35) Campanulaceae Gongoa L Herb TopicalOcimum basilicum L. (OH 29) Labiatae Irumbasi WP Herb OralOcimum suave Oliv. (OH 13)  Labiatae Suameno L Herb Topical  Plumbago zeylanica L. (OH 36) Plumbaginaceae Chambula R Herb OralPteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn (OH 41) Densitraediaceae Shilu L Herb TopicalRapanea melanophloeus (L.) Mez (OH 5) Myrsinaceae Mpaja L, SB Tree OralRhoicissus tridentata (Lf) Wild & Drumm (OH 27) Vitaceae Iforiyo T Climber OralSalvadora persica L (OH 30) Salvadoraceae Mukunkuni R Tree TopicalSclerocarya birrea. (A.Rich.) Hochst. subsp. caffra (Sond.) (OH 8)  Anacardiaceae Muongozi L, R Tree Topical Securidaca longipedunculata Fres (OH 28) Polygonaceae Musatu R Shrub OralSenecio deltoidea Less (OH 33)  Cucurbitaceae Ulenge WP Climber OralSolanum incanum L (OH 23) Solanaceae Mtula ndulele WP Herb OralSpirostachys africana Sonder (OH 54)  Euphorbiaceae Ormotanga S Tree Topical Sterculia africana (Lour) Fiori (OH 39) Sterculiaceae Muhoza L Tree OralStrophanthus eminii Asch & Pax (OH 25) Apocynaceae Muhunguti RB Shrub OralStrychnos potatorum Gilg. (OH 21) Loganiaceae Mumpande L Tree OralTagetes minuta  L. (OH 43) Compositae Mbangi L Climber TopicalTurraea holstii Gurk  (OH 37) Meliaceae Muhenga L Shrub OralZanthoxylum chalybeum L. (OH 22)  Rutaceae Mulungu RB Tree Topical/Oral Zehneria scabra (L.f) Sond   (OH 42)  Cucurbitaceae Foiza WP Climber Topical Ziziphus pubercens Oliv. (OH 55) Rhamnaceae Indigrishi L Shrub TopicalKey: aF, Fruit; L, Leaves; R, Roots; RB, Root bark; S, Stem; SB, Stem bark; T, Tubor; WP,whole plant. b* No other uses report.  223Moshi et al.,  Afr. J. Trad. CAM (2007) 4 (2): 219 - 225 Table 2: The brine shrimp lethality results represented as LC50 in µg/ml and 95% confidence intervals (CI).  Binomial name Part tested LC50 µg/ml  (95% CI) Acacia robusta Stem 108.5    87.8-134.0 Acalypha fruticosa Roots Leaves 23.9 113.9    16.5-34.7     91.2-142.3 Agauria salicifolia  Leaves >240           - Albizia anthelmintica Roots 24.9     14.1- 44.0 Aloe lateritia Whole plant 19.1    13.2-27.8 Balanites aegyptica Root bark > 240         - Cassia abbreviata  Roots  12.7      8.1-19.8 Commiphora pteleifolia  Roots >240        - Cordia africana Roots 211.4   117.6-380.1 Croton scheffleri  Roots 13.7     21.5-8.7 Chrysophylum banguelense Root bark 96.3     65.5-141.6 Cyphosterma hilderbrandtii Leaves  25.7     16.9-39.0 Drymaria cordata  Whole plant >240           - Elaeodendron schlechteranum Stem bark 37.5    28.1-50.1 Elaedendron stuhlmannii Stem bark >240           - Erythrina abbysinica Root >240           - Euphorbia heterophylla Whole plant  80.2 57.3-112.5 Euphobia tirucali  Leaves  196.2     72.7- 529.7 Ficus sur Stem bark 146.1   116.1-183.9 Hymenodictyon parvifolium  Roots 13.4      8.3-21.5 Hypericum roeperanum Leaves  46.6    34.2-63.6 Indigofera rhynchocarpa  Roots 28.3     20.5-39.0 Jatropha multifida  Leaves  Stem Roots  21.7 58.3 26.1    16.4-28.7     41.3-82.4     17.3-39.2 Khaya anthotheca Stem bark 38.7     28.6-52.2 Kigelia africana Fruit  Roots >240    7.2        -        3.9-13.8 Lannea stuhlmannii Leaves  25.3   16.6-38.8 Lobelia giberroa  Leaves  >240           - Ocimum basilicum  Whole plant 85.3     68.2-106.6 Ocimum suave Leaves  16.7     11.6-24.1 Plumbago zeylanica  Roots  >240           - Rapanea melanophloeus  Stem bark  Leaves 152.4 12.1     84.6-274.5       8.6-17.2 Rhoicissus tridentate  Stem  >240           - Salvadore persica Roots >240           - Securidaca longipedunculata Roots  77.1     45.3-131.1 Solanum incanum  Whole plant 90.2     75.7-107.4 Spirostachys africana Leaves  Stem 16.4 45.2      9.4-28.8     24.2-84.5 Sterculia africana Leaves  94.5     57.9-154.9 Strophanthus eminii Root bark 38.9     27.4-55.2 Strychnos pototorum  Leaves  87.6     39.5-194.2 Tegetes minuta Leaves  19.9     14.5-27.3 Turraea holstii  Leaves  96.3     42.5-218.5 Zanthoxylum chalybeum  Root bark 68.9     36.9-128.6 Zehneria scabra Whole plant 138.1     93.7-203.4 Ziziphus pubescens Leaves  68.2     50.5-92.1 Cyclophosphamide - 16.3     10.6-25.2    224Moshi et al.,  Afr. J. Trad. CAM (2007) 4 (2): 219 - 225  Discussion  Previous investigations of our group on the in vitro antifungal activity of the plants support the therapeutic claims of the traditional healers (Hamza et al., in Press). Identification of herbal medicines for the treatment of fungal infections in HIV/AIDS patients could be pivotal in supporting the needs of these patients in terms of easy availability, affordability, and possibly to cope with the problem of recurrent Candida infections and emergence of resistance. Apart from efficacy, safety of herbal medicines is of paramount importance as there is not much that is known about many plants that are used in traditional medicine. We have used the brine shrimp lethality test as a preliminary tool to evaluate the toxicity of the identified plants.  Unfortunately not all the plants collected were tested.  However, among those tested 9 were quite toxic to the shrimps.  Since the test is also used to identify potential anticancer substances, the results may mean that these plants are either outright toxic or may have potential anticancer activity. Two of the plants Euphorbia heterophylla L. (Rocha e Silva, 1943) and Jatropha multifida are reported to be toxic (Levin et al., 2000), thus supporting what was reported by the healers. The extracts of the roots and leaves of Jatropha multifida also exhibited relatively high toxicity on the shrimps, while for Euphorbia heterophylla the toxicity was low (LC50 80.2 µg/ml).  Toxicity results from animals will be crucial as a way to definitively judge the safety of these plants, as and when they are found to have enough potential for development.  The present results only suggest possibility of other hitherto unreported biological activities, of toxic nature or even anticancer activity. Among the plants tested were seven plants that in earlier investigations of our group showed to have potent antifungal activity (Hamza et al., in Press). The toxic effect of these plants are shown in Table 2. All these plants need to be further investigated for their potential as a source of antifungal compounds. The results of this toxicity study showed  the relative toxicities of the plants.  More work is needed in order to determine their usefulness as potential antifungal and anticancer agents.     Acknowledgements  We are grateful to Mr. Selemani of Botany Department, UDSM, for helping with collection and identification of the plants used in this study.  We are grateful to the NAPRALERT Data base of the University of Illinois, at Chicago, for allowing us access to literature.  References  1. AIDS Analysis Africa, February 1996, pp 12-13. 2. Bastert J, Schaller M, Korting HC, Evans EG (2001).  Current and future approaches to antimycotic treatment in the era of resistant fungi and immunocompromised hosts.  Intl J Antimicr Agents 17: 81-91. 3. Debruyne D (1997).  Clinical pharmacokinetics of fluconazole in superficial and systemic mycoses.  Clin Pharmacok  33:52-77. 4. Hamza OJM, van den Beukel CJP,  Mecky I.N. Matee MIN, Moshi MJ, Mikx  F, Haji O. Selemani HO, Mbwambo ZH, Van der Ven AJAM, Verweij PE (2006). Antifungal activity of some Tanzanian plants used traditionally for the treatment of fungal infections. J Ethnopharmacol. May 22;  [Epub ahead of print]  PMID: 16829001 5. Kilima PM, Ostermayer I, Shija M, Wolff  M.M, Evans PJ (1993).  Drug utilization, prescribing habits and patients in City Council Health Facilities, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.  DUHP, Swiss Tropical Institute, Basel, p. 19. 6. Levin Y, Sherer Y, Bibi  H, Schlesinger  M, Hay  E (2000).  Rare Jatropha multifida intoxication in two children. J Emerg  Med 19:173-175. 7. Litchfield Jr JR, Wilcoxon F (1949). A simplified method of evaluating dose-effect experiments. J Pharmacol Exper Therap  96: 99-13. 8. Meyer BN, Ferrigini RN, Jacobsen LB, Nicholas DE, Mc Laughlin JL (1982).  Brine shrimp: a convenient general bioassay for active plant constituents. Planta Med  45:31-35. 9. Powerly WG (1992).  Mucosal candidiasis caused by non-albicans species of Candida in HIV-positive patients. AIDS  6:604-605.    225Moshi et al.,  Afr. J. Trad. CAM (2007) 4 (2): 219 - 225  10. Redding  S, Smith J, Farinacci G., Rinaldi M, Fothergill A, Rhine-Chalberg J, Pfaller M (1994).  Resistance of Candida albicans to fluconazole during treatment of oropharyngeal candidiasis in a patient with AIDS: documentation by in vitro susceptibility testing and DNA subtype analysis. Clin Infect Dis 18:240-242. 11. Rocha e Silva  M (1943).  Studies on poisonous plants in the state of Sao Paulo: toxicological expts. on 27 plants which have been suspected of toxicity. Arq Instit Biol (Sao Paulo) 14:15.  12. Ruhnke M, Eigler A, Tennagen I, Geiseler B, Engelmann E, Trautmann M (1994). Emergence of fluconazole-resistant strains of Candida albicans in patients with reccurent oro-pharyngeal candidosis and human  immunodefficiency virus infection. J Clin Microbiol 32:2092-2098.  13. Sangeorzan JA, Bradley SF, He X, Zarins LT, Ridenour GL, Tiballi RN, Kauffman CA (1994). Epidemiology of oral candidiasis in HIV infected patients: Colonization, infection, treatment, and emergence of fluconazole resistance. Am J Med 97:339-346. 14. UNAIDS (2004). Report on the global AIDS epidemic. 2004   

BRINE SHRIMP TOXICITY EVALUATION OF SOME TANZANIAN PLANTS USED TRADITIONALLY FOR THE TREATMENT OF FUNGAL INFECTIONS

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Brine Shrimp Toxicity Evaluation of Some Tanzanian Plants Used Traditionally for the Treatment of Fungal Infections

Brine Shrimp Toxicity Evaluation of Some Tanzanian Plants Used Traditionally for the Treatment of Fungal Infections

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