This paper will examine the issue of energy consumption resulting from the use of technology. It will identify and evaluate potential solutions currently being deployed by data center managers. In addition, the paper will recommend guidelines for reducing energy consumption for both the individual and business consumer

Jacques, Janine

English

UNH Scholars' Repository

University of New HampshireUniversity of New Hampshire Scholars' RepositoryThe University Dialogue Discovery Program2006Powering down technologyJanine JacquesUniversity of New HampshireFollow this and additional works at: https://scholars.unh.edu/discovery_udPart of the Oil, Gas, and Energy Commons, and the Science and Technology Policy CommonsThis Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Discovery Program at University of New Hampshire Scholars' Repository. It has beenaccepted for inclusion in The University Dialogue by an authorized administrator of University of New Hampshire Scholars' Repository. For moreinformation, please contact nicole.hentz@unh.edu.Recommended CitationJacques, Janine, "Powering down technology" (2006). The University Dialogue. 14.https://scholars.unh.edu/discovery_ud/14Powering Down TechnologyJANINE JACQUESBUSINESS ADMINISTR ATIONUNH MANCHESTERIntroduction to U.S. EnergyIn his State of the Union address in January 2006, Presi-dent Bush announced that the United States has become addicted to oil. Crude oil prices have shown an alarm-ing increase over the past two years. At the same time, world consumption rose by 3.8 million barrels per day. The Energy Information Administration (EIA) pub-lishes the ofﬁcial energy statistics from the United States Government. The following table details the increase in energy prices and demand between 1993 and those pro-jected for 2007. Since electric companies use a varied mixture of crude oil to generate electricity, the cost of electricity parallels the increases in oil. The EIA further predicts that the demand for electricity will increase by 45 per-cent in 2030 (EIA, 2006). It is evident that the new millennium consumes more and pays a higher premium for energy. Economists suggest that the global demand for energy is a result of the expansion of China and India, the war in Iraq, the hurricanes in the Gulf Coast, and the proliferation of powerful computers (Patton, 2006). Since such factors are all outside of our immediate control, this paper will Real Gross Domestic Product (GDP) (billion chained 2000 dollars)Imported Crude Oil Price  ($ per barrel)Total Energy Demand  (quadrillion Btu) Electricity Costs (cents per kilowatthour)Total Electrical DemandSource www.eia.doe.govTABLE 1  Annual U.S. Energy Supply and Demand: Base Case(Energy Information Administration\Short-Term Energy Outlook) 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007  7533  7835  8032  8329  8704  9067  9470  9817  9891  10049  10321  10756  11135  11514  11804  16.13  15.53  17.14  20.62  18.49  12.07  17.26  27.72  22.00  23.71  27.73  35.99  48.96  60.51  60.41   87.6 89.3 91.3 94.3 94.8 95.2 96.8 99.0 96.5 97.9 98.3 99.7 99.4 99.8 102.3  8.32 8.38 8.40 8.36 8.43 8.26 8.17 8.24 8.63 8.46 8.70 8.97 9.42 9.76 9.97  2989 3068 3157 3247 3294 3425 3494 3602 3554 3642 3668 3727 3827 3859 3951 focus on managing the impact of computer technology on the nation’s power consumption.Business ComputingLivermore National Laboratory houses one of the world’s most advanced super computers. The system is designed to simulate a nuclear reaction. The project was named ASC Purple and was completed in September 2005. Within minutes of turning the new system on, laboratory workers received a call from Paciﬁc Gas and Electric Company asking to be notiﬁed next time ASC Purple was turned on or off. This is an example of how super computing requires super energy (Patton, 2006). Academic institutions and scientiﬁc testing are not the real energy culprits. Experts estimate that 3–8 per-cent of the nation’s electricity is absorbed by data cen-ters (Iwata, 2001). Data centers house computer equip-ment for one or more business entities. Because most equipment requires special care, controlled climate, and large amounts of space, businesses have found it more economical to consolidate all ofﬁce equipment into one location, usually off-site. A UNIVERSITY DIALOGUE ON ENERGY –  A “server” is a high-end computer capable of manag-ing multiple processes simultaneously. Today’s servers are mainly used for business applications, can process and store enormous amounts of data, and are much more powerful than a personal computer. Blade servers are the most recent trend in the server market. They are more efﬁcient, compact and ﬂexible. In addition, they offer rewards in reduced ﬂoor space, lower power con-sumption, and easier maintenance. Market researcher IDC predicts that 2.2 million Blade servers will ship worldwide by 2007, representing 27 percent of all new servers sold (Edwards, 2004). Data centers can house thousands of servers. For ex-ample, Yahoo maintains 200,000 servers in 27 data cen-ters nationwide. Data centers consume large quantities of energy. The utility costs for a 100,000 square-foot data center has been reported to be as high as $5.9 million an-nually. In 2005, businesses paid $3.3 billion for electric-ity. This amount was an average of 20 to 40 percent more than previous years. Dunn (2006) estimates that the number of servers supporting American businesses will jump 50 percent over the next four years. Forecasts also show that an additional 12 million square feet of data center space will be needed by 2009 (Patton, 2006).  Computer equipment generates heat. At the same time, computer equipment is sensitive to heat. Studies have shown the failure rate of a processor doubles with every increase in temperature of 10 degrees Celsius (An-thes, 2005). Keeping data centers cool is an expensive and challenging proposition. Equipment in data centers is usually densely populated. Space that is leased for $20 per foot can often cost $60 per foot to keep cool. When looking to ﬁnd a new location for data centers, decision makers are more concerned with price-per-watt than price-per-foot (Dunn, 2006).  Researchers are working on clever solutions to cool-ing servers. Although newer technologies, such as Blade servers, may require less energy to operate and less physical space than traditional servers, they still have not overcome the issue of generating heat. One popular solution is Egenera and Liebert’s Cool Frame system that mounts on top of a Blade server.  The ASC Purple super computer uses a spray cooling system that vaporizes and condenses heat away from the hardware. Liquid cooling systems are also being deployed in many data centers. This method uses chilled water to cool air and is more efﬁcient than air conditioning.  In addition to these solutions, data center manag-ers also are using detection systems to maintain and monitor the facilities. The system detects “hot-zones” and focuses cooling on those areas. Therefore, instead of cooling a 100,000 square-foot region, cooling can be targeted to speciﬁc areas. Air conditioning systems offer “economizer mode” that reduces the power consump-tion when cooling is not required.Personal ComputingIn 1965, Gordon Moore predicted that the number of transistors on an integrated circuit would double every 18 months. Moore made this statement with no factual data to support his claim. He went on to found the Intel Corporation in 1969. Intel’s ﬁrst microprocessor, the 4004 microcomputer, was released at the end of 1971. The chip was smaller than a thumbnail, contained 2,300 transistors, and could execute 60,000 operations in a second. Since 1969, the number of chips has virtually double annually, supporting Moore’s now legendary law (Roberts, 2000).  Intel plans to release a new chip in 2007 that will house one billion transistors. The SRAM chip will be unique in many ways. It is a functional static random access memory (SRAM) chip using 45-nanometer process technology. The SRAM chip was designed to require less power and be more energy efﬁcient than previous chips. Manufactures have always built chips to meet consumer and business demand for machines that deliver high performance in small packages at competi-tive prices. The market demand is now changing with the increase in the cost of energy. Instead of processing speeds, consumers are now looking at a new metric, performance-per-watt.  The Environmental Protection Agency has launched a voluntary EnergyStar program that encourages manu-facturers to develop energy efﬁcient computers. Com-puter equipment that demonstrates power efﬁciencies will be afﬁxed with the EnergyStar label. Environmen-tally conscious consumers have learned to recognize this label on household appliances and will purchase computer equipment with the EnergyStar label. In ad-dition to higher performance per watt, computer equip-ment that meets EnergyStar criteria also has power management settings that will allow them to automati-cally power down to a low-powered state during idle times (Roberson et al., 2002).   There are many other advancements and strategies to reduce the amount of power consumed by computer equipment that are currently being evaluated and de-ployed. Several are discussed below.POWER TO THE PEOPLEChip-Level Power ManagementMost ofﬁce equipment remains in an idle state during the average day. It is estimated that the average micro-processor load for ofﬁce environment is approximately 8 percent (Roth et al., 2004). While idle, most machines are still drawing power. Many power management (PM) systems allow administrators to manually adjust the power consumption during idle periods. One new solu-tion is to have the internal computer chips have the abil-ity to adjust power consumption automatically to the level required by the current application. For example, applications such as word processing and Internet browsing require less computational demand on the mi-croprocessor than regression analysis or video games. If less demand on the microprocessor could lead to less power consumption, energy would be saved. Nationally, chip-level power management reduces annual energy consumption by 14 percent (Roth et al., 2004). E-paper: Electronic Reusable Paper E-paper is an emerging product that will display text and images on a ﬂexible, thin medium. It will be capable of storing a virtually unlimited number of simultane-ous documents. Displays will be static and will require no power to maintain the image. Power will only be required to retrieve or refresh documents. Although e-paper will not completely remove consumers’ need for paper, it has the potential to signiﬁcantly reduce print-ing requirements.Inkjet Printers Inkjet printers consume signiﬁcantly less energy be-cause they do not require as much heat to produce cop-ies as laser printers or copy machines. Because of low image quality and slow printing speeds, inkjet printers have had limited success in business applications. Re-cently, inkjet printers targeted for small- to medium-sized business applications have entered the market. On a nationwide basis, inkjet technology could reduce aver-age energy consumption for imaging by more that 40 percent (Roth et al., 2004). Continuous improvements in printing page throughput and image quality will al-low business to adopt inkjet printers without sacriﬁcing quality.Remote Power Management There are a wide variety of power management (PM) systems for ofﬁce equipment. However, a large percent-age of commercial ofﬁces do not have PM features en-abled. Recently, network products have been introduced that allow the network administrator to enable and manage PM settings remotely for all PCs on a network. By remotely setting system parameters, the network administrator can set PCs within a network to enter a low-power (auto sleep) mode when inactive for a period of time, or shut down (auto off) if machines are left on over the weekend.ConclusionIt is clear that managing energy consumption is a national and worldwide concern. The solution will re-quire business and consumers to take part in efforts to conserve energy. Technology is a growing part of our daily lives and paramount to our continued success as a nation. It is also represents a growing drain on our ﬁnite resources. Technologists are actively researching and introducing new products that will help offset the energy consumption from computer equipment. As en-ergy prices continue to grow, individuals and business decision makers will trade energy efﬁcient solutions for processing speeds. A UNIVERSITY DIALOGUE ON ENERGY – ReferencesAnthes, G. (2005). “Power Play: The Search for Energy Efﬁcient Chips.” Computer World. Retrieved May 22, 2006 from http://www.computerworld.com.Bianchini, R., Rajamony, R. (2004). Power and Energy Management for Server Systems. IEEE. 37(11) 68-74. Retrieved June 1, 2006 from http://www.eia.doe.gov.Dunn, D. (2006). “Power Surge.” Information Week. Retrieved May 22, 2006 from www.informationweek.com.Edwards, J. (2004). “The Inevitability of Blade.” CIO Magazine. Retrieved May 29, 2006 from www.cio.com.EIA Short-term Energy Outlook. (2006). Energy Information Administration (EIA). Dunn, D. Power Surge. Information Week. Retrieved June 4, 2006 from www.infor-mationweek.com.Intel (2006). “Intel First to Demonstrate Working 45nm Chips.” Retrieved June 5, 2006 from www.intel.com.Iwata, E. (2001). “Experts Debate Nets Role in Power Crisis.” USA Today. Retrieved June 2, 2006 from www.usatoday.com.Patton, S. (2006). “Powering Down.” CIO Magazine. Retrieved May 29, 2006 from www.cio.com.Roberson, J. et al. (2002). Energy Use and Power Levels in New Monitors and Personal Computers. Ofﬁce of Atmospheric Programs, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Prepared for the U.S. Department of Energy. Retrieved May19, 2006 from http://repositories.cdlib.org/lbnl/LBNL-48581/.Roberts, L.G. (2000). Beyond Moore’s Law: Internet Growth Trends. Packetcom Inc., USA. IEEE. 33(1). 117-119.Roth, K., Larocque, G., Kleinman, J. (2004). Energy Consumption by Ofﬁce and Telecommunications Equipment in Commercial Buildings. Building Technologies Program. NTIS. U.S. Department of Commerce.State of the Union Address, President George Bush. (2006). United States Capitol, Washington, D.C. Retrieved on June 2, 2006 from www.whitehouse.gov.

Powering down technology

University of New Hampshire

University of New Hampshire
University of New Hampshire Scholars' Repository
The University Dialogue Discovery Program
2006
Powering down technology
Janine Jacques
University of New Hampshire
Follow this and additional works at: https://scholars.unh.edu/discovery_ud
Part of the Oil, Gas, and Energy Commons, and the Science and Technology Policy Commons
This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Discovery Program at University of New Hampshire Scholars' Repository. It has been
accepted for inclusion in The University Dialogue by an authorized administrator of University of New Hampshire Scholars' Repository. For more
information, please contact nicole.hentz@unh.edu.
Recommended Citation
Jacques, Janine, "Powering down technology" (2006). The University Dialogue. 14.
https://scholars.unh.edu/discovery_ud/14
Powering Down Technology
JANINE JACQUES
BUSINESS ADMINISTR ATION
UNH MANCHESTER
Introduction to U.S. Energy
In his State of the Union address in January 2006, Presi-
dent Bush announced that the United States has become 
addicted to oil. Crude oil prices have shown an alarm-
ing increase over the past two years. At the same time, 
world consumption rose by 3.8 million barrels per day.
 The Energy Information Administration (EIA) pub-
lishes the official energy statistics from the United States 
Government. The following table details the increase in 
energy prices and demand between 1993 and those pro-
jected for 2007.
 Since electric companies use a varied mixture of 
crude oil to generate electricity, the cost of electricity 
parallels the increases in oil. The EIA further predicts 
that the demand for electricity will increase by 45 per-
cent in 2030 (EIA, 2006).
 It is evident that the new millennium consumes more 
and pays a higher premium for energy. Economists 
suggest that the global demand for energy is a result of 
the expansion of China and India, the war in Iraq, the 
hurricanes in the Gulf Coast, and the proliferation of 
powerful computers (Patton, 2006). Since such factors 
are all outside of our immediate control, this paper will 
Real Gross Domestic Product 
(GDP) (billion chained 2000 
dollars)
Imported Crude Oil Price  
($ per barrel)
Total Energy Demand  
(quadrillion Btu) 
Electricity Costs 
(cents per kilowatthour)
Total Electrical Demand
Source www.eia.doe.gov
TABLE 1  Annual U.S. Energy Supply and Demand: Base Case
(Energy Information Administration\Short-Term Energy Outlook)
 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 
 7533  7835  8032  8329  8704  9067  9470  9817  9891  10049  10321  10756  11135  11514  11804 
 16.13  15.53  17.14  20.62  18.49  12.07  17.26  27.72  22.00  23.71  27.73  35.99  48.96  60.51  60.41  
 87.6 89.3 91.3 94.3 94.8 95.2 96.8 99.0 96.5 97.9 98.3 99.7 99.4 99.8 102.3 
 8.32 8.38 8.40 8.36 8.43 8.26 8.17 8.24 8.63 8.46 8.70 8.97 9.42 9.76 9.97 
 2989 3068 3157 3247 3294 3425 3494 3602 3554 3642 3668 3727 3827 3859 3951 
focus on managing the impact of computer technology 
on the nation’s power consumption.
Business Computing
Livermore National Laboratory houses one of the 
world’s most advanced super computers. The system is 
designed to simulate a nuclear reaction. The project was 
named ASC Purple and was completed in September 
2005. Within minutes of turning the new system on, 
laboratory workers received a call from Pacific Gas and 
Electric Company asking to be notified next time ASC 
Purple was turned on or off. This is an example of how 
super computing requires super energy (Patton, 2006).
 Academic institutions and scientific testing are not 
the real energy culprits. Experts estimate that 3–8 per-
cent of the nation’s electricity is absorbed by data cen-
ters (Iwata, 2001). Data centers house computer equip-
ment for one or more business entities. Because most 
equipment requires special care, controlled climate, and 
large amounts of space, businesses have found it more 
economical to consolidate all office equipment into one 
location, usually off-site. 
A UNIVERSITY DIALOGUE ON ENERGY – 
 A “server” is a high-end computer capable of manag-
ing multiple processes simultaneously. Today’s servers 
are mainly used for business applications, can process 
and store enormous amounts of data, and are much 
more powerful than a personal computer. Blade servers 
are the most recent trend in the server market. They are 
more efficient, compact and flexible. In addition, they 
offer rewards in reduced floor space, lower power con-
sumption, and easier maintenance. Market researcher 
IDC predicts that 2.2 million Blade servers will ship 
worldwide by 2007, representing 27 percent of all new 
servers sold (Edwards, 2004).
 Data centers can house thousands of servers. For ex-
ample, Yahoo maintains 200,000 servers in 27 data cen-
ters nationwide. Data centers consume large quantities 
of energy. The utility costs for a 100,000 square-foot data 
center has been reported to be as high as $5.9 million an-
nually. In 2005, businesses paid $3.3 billion for electric-
ity. This amount was an average of 20 to 40 percent more 
than previous years. Dunn (2006) estimates that the 
number of servers supporting American businesses will 
jump 50 percent over the next four years. Forecasts also 
show that an additional 12 million square feet of data 
center space will be needed by 2009 (Patton, 2006). 
 Computer equipment generates heat. At the same 
time, computer equipment is sensitive to heat. Studies 
have shown the failure rate of a processor doubles with 
every increase in temperature of 10 degrees Celsius (An-
thes, 2005). Keeping data centers cool is an expensive 
and challenging proposition. Equipment in data centers 
is usually densely populated. Space that is leased for $20 
per foot can often cost $60 per foot to keep cool. When 
looking to find a new location for data centers, decision 
makers are more concerned with price-per-watt than 
price-per-foot (Dunn, 2006). 
 Researchers are working on clever solutions to cool-
ing servers. Although newer technologies, such as Blade 
servers, may require less energy to operate and less 
physical space than traditional servers, they still have 
not overcome the issue of generating heat. One popular 
solution is Egenera and Liebert’s Cool Frame system 
that mounts on top of a Blade server. 
 The ASC Purple super computer uses a spray cooling 
system that vaporizes and condenses heat away from the 
hardware. Liquid cooling systems are also being deployed 
in many data centers. This method uses chilled water to 
cool air and is more efficient than air conditioning. 
 In addition to these solutions, data center manag-
ers also are using detection systems to maintain and 
monitor the facilities. The system detects “hot-zones” 
and focuses cooling on those areas. Therefore, instead 
of cooling a 100,000 square-foot region, cooling can be 
targeted to specific areas. Air conditioning systems offer 
“economizer mode” that reduces the power consump-
tion when cooling is not required.
Personal Computing
In 1965, Gordon Moore predicted that the number of 
transistors on an integrated circuit would double every 
18 months. Moore made this statement with no factual 
data to support his claim. He went on to found the Intel 
Corporation in 1969. Intel’s first microprocessor, the 
4004 microcomputer, was released at the end of 1971. 
The chip was smaller than a thumbnail, contained 2,300 
transistors, and could execute 60,000 operations in a 
second. Since 1969, the number of chips has virtually 
double annually, supporting Moore’s now legendary law 
(Roberts, 2000). 
 Intel plans to release a new chip in 2007 that will 
house one billion transistors. The SRAM chip will be 
unique in many ways. It is a functional static random 
access memory (SRAM) chip using 45-nanometer 
process technology. The SRAM chip was designed to 
require less power and be more energy efficient than 
previous chips. Manufactures have always built chips to 
meet consumer and business demand for machines that 
deliver high performance in small packages at competi-
tive prices. The market demand is now changing with 
the increase in the cost of energy. Instead of processing 
speeds, consumers are now looking at a new metric, 
performance-per-watt. 
 The Environmental Protection Agency has launched 
a voluntary EnergyStar program that encourages manu-
facturers to develop energy efficient computers. Com-
puter equipment that demonstrates power efficiencies 
will be affixed with the EnergyStar label. Environmen-
tally conscious consumers have learned to recognize 
this label on household appliances and will purchase 
computer equipment with the EnergyStar label. In ad-
dition to higher performance per watt, computer equip-
ment that meets EnergyStar criteria also has power 
management settings that will allow them to automati-
cally power down to a low-powered state during idle 
times (Roberson et al., 2002). 
  There are many other advancements and strategies 
to reduce the amount of power consumed by computer 
equipment that are currently being evaluated and de-
ployed. Several are discussed below.
POWER TO THE PEOPLE
Chip-Level Power Management
Most office equipment remains in an idle state during 
the average day. It is estimated that the average micro-
processor load for office environment is approximately 
8 percent (Roth et al., 2004). While idle, most machines 
are still drawing power. Many power management (PM) 
systems allow administrators to manually adjust the 
power consumption during idle periods. One new solu-
tion is to have the internal computer chips have the abil-
ity to adjust power consumption automatically to the 
level required by the current application. For example, 
applications such as word processing and Internet 
browsing require less computational demand on the mi-
croprocessor than regression analysis or video games. 
If less demand on the microprocessor could lead to less 
power consumption, energy would be saved. Nationally, 
chip-level power management reduces annual energy 
consumption by 14 percent (Roth et al., 2004). 
E-paper: Electronic Reusable Paper 
E-paper is an emerging product that will display text 
and images on a flexible, thin medium. It will be capable 
of storing a virtually unlimited number of simultane-
ous documents. Displays will be static and will require 
no power to maintain the image. Power will only be 
required to retrieve or refresh documents. Although e-
paper will not completely remove consumers’ need for 
paper, it has the potential to significantly reduce print-
ing requirements.
Inkjet Printers 
Inkjet printers consume significantly less energy be-
cause they do not require as much heat to produce cop-
ies as laser printers or copy machines. Because of low 
image quality and slow printing speeds, inkjet printers 
have had limited success in business applications. Re-
cently, inkjet printers targeted for small- to medium-
sized business applications have entered the market. On 
a nationwide basis, inkjet technology could reduce aver-
age energy consumption for imaging by more that 40 
percent (Roth et al., 2004). Continuous improvements 
in printing page throughput and image quality will al-
low business to adopt inkjet printers without sacrificing 
quality.
Remote Power Management 
There are a wide variety of power management (PM) 
systems for office equipment. However, a large percent-
age of commercial offices do not have PM features en-
abled. Recently, network products have been introduced 
that allow the network administrator to enable and 
manage PM settings remotely for all PCs on a network. 
By remotely setting system parameters, the network 
administrator can set PCs within a network to enter a 
low-power (auto sleep) mode when inactive for a period 
of time, or shut down (auto off) if machines are left on 
over the weekend.
Conclusion
It is clear that managing energy consumption is a 
national and worldwide concern. The solution will re-
quire business and consumers to take part in efforts to 
conserve energy. Technology is a growing part of our 
daily lives and paramount to our continued success as 
a nation. It is also represents a growing drain on our 
finite resources. Technologists are actively researching 
and introducing new products that will help offset the 
energy consumption from computer equipment. As en-
ergy prices continue to grow, individuals and business 
decision makers will trade energy efficient solutions for 
processing speeds. 
A UNIVERSITY DIALOGUE ON ENERGY – 
References
Anthes, G. (2005). “Power Play: The Search for Energy 
Efficient Chips.” Computer World. Retrieved May 22, 2006 
from http://www.computerworld.com.
Bianchini, R., Rajamony, R. (2004). Power and Energy 
Management for Server Systems. IEEE. 37(11) 68-74. 
Retrieved June 1, 2006 from http://www.eia.doe.gov.
Dunn, D. (2006). “Power Surge.” Information Week. 
Retrieved May 22, 2006 from www.informationweek.com.
Edwards, J. (2004). “The Inevitability of Blade.” CIO 
Magazine. Retrieved May 29, 2006 from www.cio.com.
EIA Short-term Energy Outlook. (2006). Energy 
Information Administration (EIA). Dunn, D. Power Surge. 
Information Week. Retrieved June 4, 2006 from www.infor-
mationweek.com.
Intel (2006). “Intel First to Demonstrate Working 45nm 
Chips.” Retrieved June 5, 2006 from www.intel.com.
Iwata, E. (2001). “Experts Debate Nets Role in Power Crisis.” 
USA Today. Retrieved June 2, 2006 from www.usatoday.com.
Patton, S. (2006). “Powering Down.” CIO Magazine. 
Retrieved May 29, 2006 from www.cio.com.
Roberson, J. et al. (2002). Energy Use and Power Levels 
in New Monitors and Personal Computers. Office of 
Atmospheric Programs, U.S. Environmental Protection 
Agency. Prepared for the U.S. Department of Energy. 
Retrieved May19, 2006 from http://repositories.cdlib.org/
lbnl/LBNL-48581/.
Roberts, L.G. (2000). Beyond Moore’s Law: Internet Growth 
Trends. Packetcom Inc., USA. IEEE. 33(1). 117-119.
Roth, K., Larocque, G., Kleinman, J. (2004). Energy 
Consumption by Office and Telecommunications Equipment 
in Commercial Buildings. Building Technologies Program. 
NTIS. U.S. Department of Commerce.
State of the Union Address, President George Bush. (2006). 
United States Capitol, Washington, D.C. Retrieved on June 2, 
2006 from www.whitehouse.gov.


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