Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is a major cause of blindness worldwide and is the number one cause of blindness in working-age individuals in developed countries. We review the current literature and discuss the pathogenesis, modifying risk factors, genetics, and treatment of DR. Special focus is placed on the rationale and effectiveness of therapeutic modalities, both current and future

Chang, Louis K

Sarraf, David

English

PubMed

Louis K Chang1, David Sarraf1,21Jules Stein Eye Institute, Department of Ophthalmology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA; 2Department of Ophthalmology, Greater LA VA Healthcare Center, Los Angeles, CAAbstract: Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is a major cause of blindness worldwide and is the number one cause of blindness in working-age individuals in developed countries. We review the current literature and discuss the pathogenesis, modifying risk factors, genetics, and treatment of DR. Special focus is placed on the rationale and effectiveness of therapeutic modalities, both current and future

Louis K Chang

David Sarraf

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Clinical Ophthalmology

Current and future approaches in the prevention and treatment of diabetic retinopathy

A phase II randomized double-masked trial of pegaptanib, an anti-vascular endothelial growth factor aptamer, for diabetic macular edema.

A pilot study of multiple intravitreal injections of ranibizumab in patients with center-involving clinically signiﬁ cant diabetic macular edema.

Advanced glycosylation end products in tissue and the biochemical basis of diabetic complications.

Albuminuria reﬂ ects widespread vascular damage. The Steno hypothesis.

Aldose reductase deﬁ ciency prevents diabetes-induced blood-retinal barrier breakdown, apoptosis, and glial reactivation in the retina of db/db mice.

An antisense oligodeoxynucleotide against vascular endothelial growth factor in a nonhuman primate model of iris neovascularization.

Association of elevated serum lipid levels with retinal hard exudate in diabetic retinopathy.

Benfotiamine blocks three major pathways of hyperglycemic damage and prevents experimental diabetic retinopathy.

Benfotiamine in the treatment of diabetic polyneuropathy--a three-week randomized, controlled pilot study (BEDIP study).

Biochemistry and molecular cell biology of diabetic complications.

Blood pressure, lipids, and obesity are associated with retinopathy: the hoorn study. Diabetes Care,

Blood-retinal barrier breakdown induced by activation of protein kinase C via vascular endothelial growth factor in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Curr Eye Res,

Cataract surgery in patients with diabetic retinopathy: visual outcome, progression of diabetic retinopathy, and incidence of diabetic macular oedema. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol,

Characterization of protein kinase C beta isoform’s action on retinoblastoma protein phosphorylation, vascular endothelial growth factor-induced endothelial cell proliferation, and retinal neovascularization.

Combined triamcinolone acetonide injection and grid laser photocoagulation: a promising treatment for diffuse diabetic macular oedema?

Corticosteroids inhibit the expression of the vascular endothelial growth factor gene in human vascular smooth muscle cells.

Danaparoid sodium in diabetic retinopathy.

Diabetic vitrectomy: risks, prognosis, future trends. Curr Opin Ophthalmol,

Early effects of intravitreal triamcinolone on macular edema: mechanistic implication.

Early photocoagulation for diabetic retinopathy. ETDRS report number 9. Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study Research Group.

Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study (ETDRS) Report 22. Arch Ophthalmol,

Early vitrectomy for severe proliferative diabetic retinopathy in eyes with useful vision. Results of a randomized trial-Diabetic Retinopathy Vitrectomy Study Report 3. The Diabetic Retinopathy Vitrectomy Study Research Group.

Effect of danaparoid sodium on proteinuria, von Willebrand factor, and hard exudates in patients with diabetes mellitus type 2.

Effect of perioperative glycemic control in progression of diabetic retinopathy and maculopathy.

Effect of pregnancy on microvascular complications in the diabetes control and complications trial.

Effect of ruboxistaurin in patients with diabetic macular edema: thirty-month results of the randomized PKC-DMES clinical trial. Arch Ophthalmol,

Effect of ruboxistaurin on visual loss in patients with diabetic retinopathy.

Erythropoietin as a retinal angiogenic factor in proliferative diabetic retinopathy.

Erythropoietin is highly elevated in vitreous ﬂ uid of patients with proliferative diabetic retinopathy. Diabetes Care,

Erythropoietin levels in aqueous humour in eyes with exudative age-related macular degeneration and diabetic retinopathy. Clin Experiment Ophthalmol,

Experimental galactosemia produces diabetic-like retinopathy.

Extracellular carbonic anhydrase mediates hemorrhagic retinal and cerebral vascular permeability through prekallikrein activation.

Fluocinolone acetonide implant (Retisert) for noninfectious posterior uveitis: thirty-four-week results of a multicenter randomized clinical study.

Geldanamycin treatment reduces neovascularization in a mouse model of retinopathy of prematurity. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol,

Genetics of diabetic retinopathy. Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes,

Glucocorticoid regulation of endothelial cell tight junction gene expression: novel treatments for diabetic retinopathy. Curr Eye Res,

Glycosylated hemoglobin predicts the incidence and progression of diabetic retinopathy.

Hydrocortisone decreases retinal endothelial cell water and solute ﬂ ux coincident with increased content and decreased phosphorylation of occludin.

Identiﬁ cation and quantiﬁ cation of renin and prorenin in the bovine eye.

Importance of the vitreous in young diabetics with macular edema.

Increased vascular endothelial growth factor levels in the vitreous of eyes with proliferative diabetic retinopathy.

Infectious and noninfectious endophthalmitis after intravitreal high-dosage triamcinolone acetonide.

Inhibition of intraocular neovascularization caused by retinal ischemia in pigs by PKCbeta inhibition with LY333531. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci,

Intensive blood-glucose control with sulphonylureas or insulin compared with conventional treatment and risk of complications

Intravitreal bevacizumab (Avastin) in the treatment of proliferative diabetic retinopathy.

Intravitreal bevacizumab (Avastin) therapy for persistent diffuse diabetic macular edema.

Intravitreal injection of crystalline cortisone as adjunctive treatment of proliferative diabetic retinopathy.

Intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide for diabetic macular edema: a prospective, randomized study.

Intravitreal triamcinolone as an adjunct in the treatment of concomitant proliferative diabetic retinopathy and diffuse diabetic macular oedema. Combined IVTA and laser treatment for PDR with CSMO.

Intravitreal triamcinolone compared with macular laser grid photocoagulation for the treatment of cystoid macular edema.

Intravitreal triamcinolone plus sequential grid laser versus triamcinolone or laser alone for treating diabetic macular edema six-month outcomes. Ophthalmology, Apr 23; [Epub ahead of print] Lewis

Intravitreous anti-raf-1 kinase antisense oligonucleotide as an angioinhibitory agent in porcine preretinal neovascularization. Curr Eye Res,

Is acetazolamide effective in the treatment of diabetic macular edema? A pilot study.

Laser photocoagulation combined with intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide injection in proliferative diabetic retinopathy with macular edema.

Metabolic control and progression of retinopathy.

Neural apoptosis in the retina during experimental and human diabetes. Early onset and effect of insulin.

Nonproliferative diabetic retinopathy. In: Ryan,

Oscillatory potential amplitudes. Relation to severity of diabetic retinopathy.

Panretinal photocoagulation and intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide for the management of proliferative diabetic retinopathy with macular edema.

Pegaptanib as an adjunctive treatment for complicated neovascular diabetic retinopathy. Arch Ophthalmol,

Photocoagulation treatment of proliferative diabetic retinopathy. Clinical application of Diabetic Retinopathy Study (DRS) ﬁ ndings,

Pooled efﬁ cacy results from two multinational randomized controlled clinical trials of a single intravitreous injection of highly puriﬁ ed ovine hyaluronidase (Vitrase) for the management of vitreous hemorrhage.

Predicting progression to severe proliferative diabetic retinopathy. Arch Ophthalmol,

Preventing diabetic retinopathy through control of systemic factors.

Primary intravitreal bevacizumab (Avastin) for diabetic macular edema: results from the Pan-American Collaborative Retina Study Group at 6-month follow-up.

Randomized controlled study of an intravitreous dexamethasone drug delivery system in patients with persistent macular edema. Arch Ophthalmol,

Results after lens extraction in patients with diabetic retinopathy: early treatment diabetic retinopathy study report number 25. Arch Ophthalmol,

Results of a Phase I Study of Intravitreal VEGF Trap in Subjects With Diabetic Macular Edema: The CLEAR-IT DME Study. In: Association for Research in Vision and Ophthalmology,

Retinal capillaries: basement membrance thickening by galactosemia preventede with aldose reductase inhibitor.

Retinopathy and nephropathy in patients with type 1 diabetes four years after a trial of intensive therapy.

Risk factors for high-risk proliferative diabetic retinopathy and severe visual loss: Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study Report #18. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci,

Simvastatin retards progression of retinopathy in diabetic patients with hypercholesterolemia. Diabetes Res Clin Pract,

Subretinal ﬁ brosis in diabetic macular edema. ETDRS report 23. Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study Research Group. Arch Ophthalmol,

The effect of intensive treatment of diabetes on the development and progression of long-term complications in insulindependent diabetes mellitus.

The potential role of PKC beta in diabetic retinopathy and macular edema. Surv Ophthalmol, 47(Suppl 2):S263–269.

The role of growth hormone, insulin-like growth factor and somatostatin in diabetic retinopathy. Curr Med Chem,

The role of the vitreous in diabetic macular edema.

The sorbinil retinopathy trial: neuropathy results.

The Wisconsin epidemiologic study of diabetic retinopathy. II. Prevalence and risk of diabetic retinopathy when age at diagnosis is less than 30 years. Arch Ophthalmol,

The Wisconsin epidemiologic study of diabetic retinopathy. III. Prevalence and risk of diabetic retinopathy when age at diagnosis is 30 or more years. Arch Ophthalmol,

The Wisconsin Epidemiologic Study of Diabetic Retinopathy. XIII. Relationship of serum cholesterol to retinopathy and hard exudate.

Triamcinolone as adjunctive treatment to laser panretinal photocoagulation for proliferative diabetic retinopathy. Arch Ophthalmol,

Use of intravitreal bevacizumab as a preoperative adjunct for tractional retinal detachment repair in severe proliferative diabetic retinopathy.

Use of soluble recombinant decoy receptor vascular endothelial growth factor trap (VEGF Trap) to inhibit vascular endothelial growth factor activity. Clin Colorectal Cancer, 4(Suppl 2):S81–5.

Vascular endothelial growth factor in ocular ﬂ uid of patients with diabetic retinopathy and other retinal disorders.

Vascular endothelial growth factor-induced retinal permeability is mediated by protein kinase C in vivo and suppressed by an orally effective beta-isoform-selective inhibitor.

Vascular endothelial growth factor. The trigger for neovascularization in the eye. Lab Invest,

Vitamin E prevents diabetes-induced abnormal retinal blood ﬂ ow via the diacylglycerolprotein kinase C pathway.

Vitrectomy for diabetic macular edema: the role of posterior vitreous detachment and epimacular membrane.

Vitreous levels of pigment epithelium-derived factor and vascular endothelial growth factor are related to diabetic macular edema.

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Current and future approaches in the prevention and treatment of diabetic retinopathy

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