This report discusses Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs, or roadside bombs) in Iraq and Afghanistan. IEDs have been responsible for many of the more than 2,000 combat deaths in Iraq, and 178 combat deaths in Afghanistan.  IEDs are hidden behind signs and guardrails, under roadside debris, or inside animal carcasses, and encounters with these bombs are becoming more numerous and deadly in both Iraq and Afghanistan. The threat includes vehicle-borne IEDs, in which extremists drive cars laden with explosives directly into a target. DOD efforts to counter IEDs have proven only marginally effective, and U.S.

forces continue to be exposed to the threat at military checkpoints, or whenever on

patrol. IEDs are increasingly being used in Afghanistan, and DOD reportedly is

concerned that they might eventually be more widely used by other insurgents and

terrorists worldwide

Wilson, Clay

This report provides information on the effects and possible counter measures of Improvised Explosive Devices in Iraq and Afghanistan

UNT Digital Library

1 DOD Personnel and Military Casualty Statistics, Defense Manpower Data Center, CasualtySummary by Reason, October 7, 2001 through August 18, 2007; available at[http://siadapp.dmdc.osd.mil/personnel/CASUALTY/gwot_reason.pdf].2 The suicide attacks on American hotels in Jordan in November 2005 represent the first knowncase where Iraqis have conducted suicide bombings against the U.S. outside of Iraq.  BrentSadler, Jordan Confirms Al Qaeda Behind Hotel Blasts, CNN, November 12, 2005.3 DOD Personnel and Military Casualty Statistics, Defense Manpower Data Center, Casualty(continued...)Order Code RS22330Updated February 8, 2008Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs) in Iraq and Afghanistan: Effects and CountermeasuresClay WilsonSpecialist in Technology and National SecurityForeign Affairs, Defense, and Trade DivisionSummarySince October 2001, improvised explosive devices (IEDs, roadside bombs, andsuicide car bombs) have been responsible for many of the combat deaths in Iraq andAfghanistan.1  Vehicle-borne IEDs and car bombs are now used to strike police stations,markets, and mosques, killing local citizens as well as U.S. troops.  U.S. forces counterthe devices through utilizing intelligence sources, and by disrupting portions of the radiospectrum that insurgents use to trigger IEDs.  Insurgents quickly adapt tocountermeasures, and new, more sophisticated IEDs are increasingly being used in bothIraq and Afghanistan.  Recent trends show a decrease in the number of IED attacks inIraq since June 2007, but an increase in the number of effective IED attacks inAfghanistan.  Department of Defense (DOD) officials have also charged that Iran maybe supplying new IED technology to insurgents in Iraq.  There is growing concern thatIEDs might eventually be used by other insurgents in Pakistan, and in other areasworldwide.2  This report will be updated as events warrant.BackgroundImprovised explosive devices, also known as IEDs, roadside bombs, and suicide carbombs, have caused over 70% of all American combat casualties in Iraq and 50% ofcombat casualties in Afghanistan, both killed and wounded.3  Some observers speculateCRS-23 (...continued)Summary by Reason, October 7, 2001 through August 18, 2007; available at[http://siadapp.dmdc.osd.mil/personnel/CASUALTY/gwot_reason.pdf].4 James Glanz and Jim Dwyer, “Looting Spree Gutted Ammo Dump,” San Francisco Chronicle,October 28, 2004.  Byron York, Remember Al Qaqaa? National Review Online, February 28,2005, at [http://www.nationalreview.com/york/york200502280821.asp].5 Peter Bergen, “The Taliban, Regrouped and Rearmed,” The Washington Post, September 10,2006, p. B1.  Helen Cooper, “NATO Chief Says More Troops Are Needed in Afghanistan,” TheNew York Times, September 22, 2006, p. 10.6 Jason Straziuso, Taliban netting millions from poppies, Associated Press, April 10, 2007.7 Colum Lynch and Griff Witte, “Afghan Opium Trade Hits New Peak,” The Washington Post,Aug 28, 2007, p. A.3.8 Jim Garamone, Supplemental Bill Needed to Fund Anti-IED Effort, Director Says, DefenseLinkNews Article, November 19, 2007.9 Peter Bergen, “The Taliban, Regrouped and Rearmed,” The Washington Post, September 10,2006, p. B4.10 Senate Select Committee on Intelligence Holds Hearing on the Annual Threat Assessment,Congressional Transcripts, Congressional Hearings, CQ.com, February 5, 2008.11 Gen. Montgomery Meigs, On the Offensive: The Battle Against IEDs, Marine Times, April 16,(continued...)that much of the munitions for constructing IEDs in Iraq may have come from large Iraqimilitary ordnance deposits looted by insurgents, or from stockpiles scattered in secretlocations throughout that country before the war.4  In Afghanistan, the IED munitionssupply is supported by funds from an expanding opium trade.5  Afghanistan’s opium cropreportedly grew 59% in 2006, yielding 6,100 tons, or 90% of the world’s supply.6  In2007, the opium crop grew by another 34%, and is now the source of 93% of the world’ssupply of heroin and morphine.7  News sources report that the average number of daily attacks in Iraq has decreasedby 42% since June 2007, coincident with the recent surge in the number of U.S. militaryforces there.  In addition, coalition forces in Iraq have discovered significantly moreenemy weapons caches, largely due to an increase in the number of tips from Iraqinationals.  However, DOD officials have also stated that in Afghanistan, Taliban fightershave increased both the number and lethality of their IED attacks.8Observers have indicated that the Taliban forces in Afghanistan appear to havelearned some IED techniques from the Iraqi insurgents, and some areas of Afghanistanare now reportedly becoming too dangerous for reconstruction efforts there to continue.9The Taliban reportedly is allied with local Pashtun fighters, and some foreign fighters, andis using suicide bombings, improvised explosive devices, and small arms to increaseattack levels.  In neighboring Pakistan, at least 865 security forces and officials havereportedly been killed by suicide bombs and improvised explosive devices in 2007.10 DOD has found that insurgents build and deploy IEDs by using social networks that,for centuries in Afghanistan and Iraq, have formed the sinews of commerce and survivalfor tribes and factions.11  A typical IED terrorist cell consists of six to eight people,CRS-311 (...continued)2007, [http://www.harmonieweb.org:40793/news/Pages/OnTheOffensive.aspx].12 Sara Carter, “Iran-Arms Importers Captured in Iraq”, Washington Times, July 28, 2007, p. 1.13 Tom Brook, “Military Tests New Armored Vehicle,” USA Today, June 11, 2007, p. 1A.14 Joshua Partlow, “Military Ties Iran to Arms in Iraq,” The Washington Post, February 12, 2007,p. A1.15 Serial numbers for infrared triggers have been traced to bulk device orders by Iran.  Precisionmanufacturing techniques required to produce EFP bombs indicate that some may have beenconstructed in Iran.  Michael Isikoff and Mark Hosenball, Terror Watch: Tracking Iran’s Rolein Iraq Attacks, Newsweek, January 24, 2007.  Tom Brook, “U.S. blames Iran for new bombs inIraq,” USA Today, January 31, 2007, at [http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/iraq/2007-01-30-ied-iran_x.htm].16 The Army has reportedly suffered losses because of ambushes that follow IED attacks.   GregGrant, “Aerial IEDs Target U.S. Copters,” Defense News, January 16, 2006.  John Anderson,Steve Fainaru, Jonathan Finer, “Bigger, Stronger Homemade Bombs Now to Blame for Half ofU.S. Deaths,” The Washington Post, October 26, 2005, p. A1.  Ann Tyson, “Thousands of ArmyHumvees Lack Armor Upgrade,” The Washington Post, February 12, 2007, p. A1.including a financier, bomb maker, emplacer, triggerman, spotter, and often a cameraman.Videos of exploding U.S. vehicles and dead Americans are distributed via the Internet towin new supporters.In July 2007, DOD officials reportedly accused four captured Iranians of smugglingexplosives and personnel from Iran into Iraq.12  Iran is suspected of supplying Iraqinsurgents with training and new IED technology, such as “passive infrared” electronicsensors that are used for triggering roadside bombs.  The new sensors are more resistantto electromagnetic countermeasures now employed by U.S. forces.  DOD officials alsosuspect that Iran is supplying Iraq insurgents with a more lethal IED bomb design calledan explosively formed projectile (EFP).  An EFP is made from a pipe filled withexplosives and capped by a specially shaped metal disk.  When the explosives detonate,they transform the disk into a jet of molten metal capable of penetrating armor.  EFPsreportedly strike with enough power to cause pieces of a targeted vehicle’s heavy armorto turn into shrapnel, making them much more deadly than traditional IED weapons.DOD officials report there were 69 attacks utilizing EFPs in April 2007.13  The same typeof EFP device has been used by Shiite organizations in Lebanon, where Hezbollahreceives military support from Iran.  However, Iranian government officials denyinvolvement with any transfer of these weapons to Iraq.14 In addition, U.S. intelligence officials have reportedly said that most IED attacksagainst U.S. forces in Iraq come from Sunni insurgents rather than from the Shia elementsmost directly backed by Iran.15  Over time, the insurgents in Iraq have adapted to manyU.S. countermeasures, and several DOD officials have stated that protective equipmentsometimes seems to be less effective after being deployed for only a few months.16CountermeasuresDOD has established the Joint IED Defeat Organization (JIEDDO) to investigatecountermeasures along with various national laboratories, the Department of Energy,CRS-417 Brenda Steele, “Vice Chairman Visits Troops in Afghanistan, Focuses on IED Issues,” DefenseLink, September 24, 2006, [http://www.defenselink.mil/news/NewsArticle.aspx?ID=1156].18 Brenda Steele, “Vice Chairman Visits Troops in Afghanistan, Focuses on IED Issues,” DefenseLink, September 24, 2006 [http://www.defenselink.mil/news/NewsArticle.aspx?ID=1156].19 Bruce Lieberman, “SDSU professor focuses laser research on finding killer explosives in Iraq,”SignOnSanDiego.com, December 27, 2005; available at [http://www.signonsandiego.com/articlelink/sdsufoundation4/sdsufoundation4.html].20 Sgt. Stephen D’Alessio, 2nd Marine Division, Marines schooled in new bomb protection, July7, 2005; available at [http://www.marines.mil/marinelink/mcn2000.nsf/0/b89628064c45144e85257056003871f1?OpenDocument].21 Brendan Rivers, U.S. to Use Directed Energy on IEDs in Iraq, eDefenseOnline, June 7, 2005.Christopher Castelli, “General: Ability to Prematurely Detonate Enemy Bombs Badly Needed,”Inside the Navy, August 22, 2005, at [http://www.insidedefense.com/].22 Loren B. Thompson, Iraq: Stop the Bombers, Win the War, June 10, 2005, Lexington Institute,[http://www.lexingtoninstitute.org/defense.asp?aid=616]. 23 Sebastian Sprenger, “U.S., NATO Research Could Help Troops Detect IED Threats fromAfar,” Inside the Pentagon, May 26, 2005.  Noah Shachtman, “Improvised Bombs Baffle Army,”Wired News, January 26, 2005, [http://www.wired.com/news/technology/0,1282,66395,00.html].24 Kris Osborn, U.S. Tests Anti-IED Laser, Defense News, November 26, 2007, p. 8.contractors, and academia. The Marine Counter Improvised Explosive Device TechnologyDirectorate and the Army Electronic Warfare Division also work with the JIEDDO toreduce the IED threat.17  DOD has also sent electronic warfare officers from the Navy andAir Force into Iraq and Afghanistan to work on counter-IED measures.18  Thetechnologies being evaluated include electronic jammers and pre-detonators, radars, X-rayequipment, robotic explosive ordnance disposal equipment, physical security equipment,and armor for vehicles and personnel.19In 2007, JIEDDO has funded almost 14,000 jammers for Marine and Army units,including robots for explosive ordnance disposal teams, Cougar vehicles for routeclearance teams, and Guardian, a man-portable jammer for dismounted operations.  TheJIEDDO also uses intelligence sources to assemble and distribute products to militaryunits daily to support their efforts to destroy the networks that create IEDs.Electronic jamming devices include the IED Countermeasures Equipment (ICE) andthe Warlock, both of which use low-power radio frequency energy to block the signals ofradio controlled explosives detonators, such as cell phones, satellite phones, and long-range cordless telephones.20  Other countermeasures include the Joint IED Neutralizer(JIN) and the Neutralizing Improvised Explosive Devices with Radio Frequency (NIRF),which produce a high-frequency field to neutralize IED electronics at a distance.21  Asystem now deployed in Iraq, code-named PING, fits inside a Humvee and sends outelectromagnetic waves to penetrate the walls of buildings to detect IEDs.22  Other sensors,such as the Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy system (LIBS), detect traces ofexplosives used for IEDs from as far away as 30 meters.23  By 2010, the Army plans tofield a solid-state, 1-kilowatt, vehicle-mounted laser that can destroy IEDs.24CRS-525 David Fulghum, “Jamming Jam-Up,” Aviation Week & Space Technology, November 7, 2005,vol. 163, no. 18, p. 32.26 David Fulghum, “Attacking Bombs,” Aviation Week, July 31, 2005.27 Michael Moss, “Many Missteps Tied to Delay Of Armor to Protect Soldiers,” The New YorkTimes, March 7, 2005, at [http://www.globalsecurity.org/org/news/2005/050307-armor-missteps.htm].28 Anne Plummer, “Deadly Threat of Explosive Devices in Iraq Prompts Secrecy Debate,” Insidethe Pentagon, November 18, 2004, vol. 20, no. 47.29 Personal communication, JIEDDO, August 28, 2007.30 Ann Tyson, “Thousands of Army Humvees Lack Armor Upgrade,” The Washington Post,February 12, 2007, p. A1.However, the Radio Frequency (RF) spectrum in the Iraq combat theater is largelynot managed, and counter-IED radio jammers can sometimes lock onto other U.S.electronic combat systems because of a lack of coordination of spectrum usage.  Also,Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) can sometimes lose their radio control links due toground-based radio interference caused by counter-IED jammers once they are far awayfrom their control base.  Therefore, DOD is now developing an “Electronic WarfareCoordination Cell” to help sort out problems that can impede friendly operations, orendanger Explosive Ordnance Teams as they disable IEDs on the ground.25Other counter-IED research involves fusing large amounts of intelligence andsurveillance data to monitor when and where bombs are planted.  Using such datagathered by Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), enemy bomb makers can be targetedbefore attacks can be launched.  Sometimes the data can be played backward to see fromwhere the bombers and vehicles came.26Threat data about IEDs is tightly controlled by DOD to avoid giving feedback to theenemy about the effectiveness or ineffectiveness of different IED designs.  Also,proprietary rights must be protected for those companies who produce IEDcountermeasures.  However, these controls may sometimes limit access by othercompanies to important information about the effectiveness of anti-IED systems as theyare tested or used in battle.27  As a result, some industry officials say they are not gettingaccess to all the information they need to help them create the most effective newsolutions to counter IEDs, and suggest that relaxing some of the controls might lead tomore solutions.28  However, the JIEDDO has recognized this issue and is taking steps,including modifying content on its website, to improve access to information at theappropriate clearance levels.29Acquisition and Funding of CountermeasuresSome U.S. Army units in Iraq and Afghanistan reportedly lack the latest Humveearmor kits, and the new deployment of five additional Army brigades has added to thatshortage.30  Humvees can be up-armored through a rebuilding process that adds classifiedtechnology called “Frag 5” or “Frag 6,” which are armor kits that are said to offerCRS-631 David Crane, New Vehicle Armor Developed to Defeat Explosively Formed Penetrators(EFPs), Defense Review.com, June 27, 2007.32 For more information about MRAP vehicles, see CRS Report RS22707, Mine-Resistant,Ambush-Protected (MRAP) Vehicles: Background and Issues for Congress, by Andrew Feickert.33 Tom Brook, “MRAPs Can’t Stop Newest Weapon,” USA Today, May 31, 2007, p. 1A.34 Newsstand, MRAP Sheet, the Insider.com, Jul 12, 2007, at [http://defense.iwpnewsstand.com/insider.asp?issue=07122007].35 Report 110-155, Department of Defense Appropriations Bill, 2008, Senate Committee onAppropriations, September 14, 2007, p. 284.36 Personal communication with JIEDDO staff, February 8, 2008.increased protection against side-penetrating EFPs.31  However, the weight of extra armormay sometimes hinder the payload and performance of humvees.  The Army expects tobegin taking delivery in 2007 of the first wave of blast-proof trucks, called Mine ResistantAmbush Protected (MRAP) vehicles.32  All Humvees in Iraq are to be replaced byMRAPs, which are better designed to withstand traditional IEDs. However, some DODofficials have reportedly stated that the MRAP may not be able to stop EFPs unlessadditional armor is added, and that this known vulnerability will cause insurgents toincrease their use of EFPs33  The Army and Marine Corps are also planning to graduallyreplace the humvee fleet with the new Joint Light Tactical Vehicle (JLTV), starting inFY2012.34  On August 5, 2007, the House passed H.R. 3222, the Department of DefenseAppropriations Act of 2008, where $500,000,000 was made available to the Joint IEDDefeat Fund, until September 30, 2010.  The Joint IED Defeat Fund allows DOD toallocate funds where needed.  However, under this legislation, funds allocated foroperating and administrative expenses are limited to not more than $110,000,000, andthe Office of the Secretary of Defense (OSD) is required to submit a plan to the defensecommittees explaining the intended management and use of the amounts provided.   In September 2007, the Senate Committee on Appropriations recommended$120,000,000 in funding for the JIEDDO, which is $380,000,000 below the budgetrequest of $500,000,000.  The committee, in its report, expressed strong concern over thelack of a formalized strategic plan to clarify the roles of JIEDDO within the Departmentof Defense and the intelligence community.  The DOD was required, under PL110-28, tofinalize the JIEDDO strategic plan by August 17, 2007.35  However, DOD reportedlyprovided the plan to Congress on September 28, 2007.  The JIEDDO also reportedlyreceived $4.269 billion in a bridge fund, as part of the FY2008 Global War On Terrorsupplemental budget request.36

Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs) in Iraq and Afghanistan: Effects and Countermeasures

This report provides information on the effects and possible countermeasures of Improvised Explosive Devices in Iraq and Afghanistan

1 DOD Personnel and Military Casualty Statistics, Defense Manpower Data Center, CasualtySummary by Reason, October 7, 2001 through August 18, 2007; available at[http://siadapp.dmdc.osd.mil/personnel/CASUALTY/gwot_reason.pdf].2 The suicide attacks on American hotels in Jordan in November 2005 represent the first knowncase where Iraqis have conducted suicide bombings against the U.S. outside of Iraq.  BrentSadler, Jordan Confirms Al Qaeda Behind Hotel Blasts, CNN, November 12, 2005.Order Code RS22330Updated November 21, 2007Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs) in Iraq and Afghanistan: Effects and CountermeasuresClay WilsonSpecialist in Technology and National SecurityForeign Affairs, Defense, and Trade DivisionSummarySince October 2001, improvised explosive devices (IEDs, roadside bombs, andsuicide car bombs) have been responsible for many of the combat deaths in Iraq andAfghanistan.1  Vehicle-borne IEDs and car bombs are now used to strike police stations,markets, and mosques, killing local citizens as well as U.S. troops.  U.S. forces counterthe devices through utilizing intelligence sources, and by disrupting portions of the radiospectrum that insurgents use to trigger IEDs.  Insurgents quickly adapt tocountermeasures, and new, more sophisticated IEDs are increasingly being used in bothIraq and Afghanistan.  Recent trends show a decrease in the number of IED attacks inIraq since June 2007, but an increase in the number of effective IED attacks inAfghanistan.  Department of Defense (DOD) officials have also charged that Iran maybe supplying new IED technology to insurgents in Iraq.  There is growing concern thatIEDs might eventually be used by other insurgents and terrorists worldwide.2  Thisreport will be updated as events warrant.BackgroundImprovised explosive devices, also known as IEDs, roadside bombs, and suicide carbombs, have caused over 70% of all American combat casualties in Iraq and 50% ofCRS-23 DOD Personnel and Military Casualty Statistics, Defense Manpower Data Center, CasualtySummary by Reason, October 7, 2001 through August 18, 2007; available at[http://siadapp.dmdc.osd.mil/personnel/CASUALTY/gwot_reason.pdf].4 James Glanz and Jim Dwyer, “Looting Spree Gutted Ammo Dump,” San Francisco Chronicle,October 28, 2004.  Byron York, Remember Al Qaqaa? National Review Online, February 28,2005, at [http://www.nationalreview.com/york/york200502280821.asp].5 Peter Bergen, “The Taliban, Regrouped and Rearmed,” The Washington Post, September 10,2006, p. B1.  Helen Cooper, “NATO Chief Says More Troops Are Needed in Afghanistan,” TheNew York Times, September 22, 2006, p. 10.6 Jason Straziuso, Taliban netting millions from poppies, Associated Press, April 10, 2007.7 Colum Lynch and Griff Witte, “Afghan Opium Trade Hits New Peak,” The Washington Post,Aug 28, 2007, p. A.3.8 Jim Garamone, Supplemental Bill Needed to Fund Anti-IED Effort, Director Says, DefenseLinkNews Article, November 19, 2007.9 Peter Bergen, “The Taliban, Regrouped and Rearmed,” The Washington Post, September 10,2006, p. B4.10 Gen. Montgomery Meigs, On the Offensive: The Battle Against IEDs, Marine Times, April 16,2007, [http://www.harmonieweb.org:40793/news/Pages/OnTheOffensive.aspx].combat casualties in Afghanistan, both killed and wounded.3  Some observers speculatethat much of the munitions for constructing IEDs in Iraq may have come from large Iraqimilitary ordnance deposits looted by insurgents, or from stockpiles scattered in secretlocations throughout that country before the war.4  In Afghanistan, the IED munitionssupply is supported by funds from an expanding opium trade.5  Afghanistan’s opium cropreportedly grew 59% in 2006, yielding 6,100 tons, or 90% of the world’s supply.6  In2007, the opium crop grew by another 34%, and is now the source of 93% of the world’ssupply of heroin and morphine.7  News sources report that the average number of daily attacks in Iraq has decreasedby 42% since June 2007, coincident with the recent surge in the number of U.S. militaryforces there.  In addition, coalition forces in Iraq have discovered significantly moreenemy weapons caches, largely due to an increase in the number of tips from Iraqinationals.  However, DOD officials have also stated that in Afghanistan, Taliban fightershave increased both the number and lethality of their IED attacks.8Observers have indicated that the Taliban forces in Afghanistan appear to havelearned some IED techniques from the Iraqi insurgents, and some areas of Afghanistanare now reportedly becoming too dangerous for reconstruction efforts there to continue.9DOD has found that insurgents build and deploy IEDs by using networks that, forcenturies in Afghanistan and Iraq, have formed the sinews of commerce and survival fortribes and factions.10  A typical IED terrorist cell consists of six to eight people, includinga financier, bomb maker, emplacer, triggerman, spotter, and often a cameraman.  Videosof exploding U.S. vehicles and dead Americans are distributed via the Internet to win newsupporters.CRS-311 Sara Carter, “Iran-Arms Importers Captured in Iraq”, Washington Times, July 28, 2007, p. 1.12 Tom Brook, “Military Tests New Armored Vehicle,” USA Today, June 11, 2007, p. 1A.13 Joshua Partlow, “Military Ties Iran to Arms in Iraq,” The Washington Post, February 12, 2007,p. A1.14 Serial numbers for infrared triggers have been traced to bulk device orders by Iran.  Precisionmanufacturing techniques required to produce EFP bombs indicate that some may have beenconstructed in Iran.  Michael Isikoff and Mark Hosenball, Terror Watch: Tracking Iran’s Rolein Iraq Attacks, Newsweek, January 24, 2007.  Tom Brook, “U.S. blames Iran for new bombs inIraq,” USA Today, January 31, 2007, at [http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/iraq/2007-01-30-ied-iran_x.htm].15 The Army has reportedly suffered losses because of ambushes that follow IED attacks.   GregGrant, “Aerial IEDs Target U.S. Copters,” Defense News, January 16, 2006.  John Anderson,Steve Fainaru, Jonathan Finer, “Bigger, Stronger Homemade Bombs Now to Blame for Half ofU.S. Deaths,” The Washington Post, October 26, 2005, p. A1.  Ann Tyson, “Thousands of ArmyHumvees Lack Armor Upgrade,” The Washington Post, February 12, 2007, p. A1.16 Brenda Steele, “Vice Chairman Visits Troops in Afghanistan, Focuses on IED Issues,” DefenseLink, September 24, 2006, [http://www.defenselink.mil/news/NewsArticle.aspx?ID=1156].In July 2007, DOD officials reportedly accused four captured Iranians of smugglingexplosives and personnel from Iran into Iraq.11  Iran is suspected of supplying Iraqinsurgents with training and new IED technology, such as “passive infrared” electronicsensors that are used for triggering roadside bombs.  The new sensors are more resistantto electromagnetic countermeasures now employed by U.S. forces.  DOD officials alsosuspect that Iran is supplying Iraq insurgents with a more lethal IED bomb design calledan explosively formed projectile (EFP).  An EFP is made from a pipe filled withexplosives and capped by a specially shaped metal disk.  When the explosives detonate,they transform the disk into a jet of molten metal capable of penetrating armor.  EFPsreportedly strike with enough power to cause pieces of a targeted vehicle’s heavy armorto turn into shrapnel, making them much more deadly than traditional IED weapons.DOD officials report there were 69 attacks utilizing EFPs in April 2007.12  The same typeof EFP device has been used by Shiite organizations in Lebanon, where Hezbollahreceives military support from Iran.  However, Iranian government officials denyinvolvement with any transfer of these weapons to Iraq.13 In addition, U.S. intelligence officials have reportedly said that most IED attacksagainst U.S. forces in Iraq come from Sunni insurgents rather than from the Shia elementsmost directly backed by Iran.14  Over time, the insurgents in Iraq have adapted to manyU.S. countermeasures, and several DOD officials have stated that protective equipmentsometimes seems to be less effective after being deployed for only a few months.15CountermeasuresDOD has established the Joint IED Defeat Organization (JIEDDO) to investigatecountermeasures along with various national laboratories, the Department of Energy,contractors, and academia. The Marine Counter Improvised Explosive Device TechnologyDirectorate and the Army Electronic Warfare Division also work with the JIEDDO toreduce the IED threat.16  DOD has also sent electronic warfare officers from the Navy andCRS-417 Brenda Steele, “Vice Chairman Visits Troops in Afghanistan, Focuses on IED Issues,” DefenseLink, September 24, 2006 [http://www.defenselink.mil/news/NewsArticle.aspx?ID=1156].18 Bruce Lieberman, “SDSU professor focuses laser research on finding killer explosives in Iraq,”SignOnSanDiego.com, December 27, 2005; available at [http://www.signonsandiego.com/articlelink/sdsufoundation4/sdsufoundation4.html].19 Steve Grossman, Car Bomb Detector Employs a Revolutionary New Approach, RFDesign,November 9, 2005 [http://rfdesign.com/military_defense_electronics/news/car_bomb_detector/].20 Sgt. Stephen D’Alessio, 2nd Marine Division, Marines schooled in new bomb protection, July7, 2005; available at [http://www.marines.mil/marinelink/mcn2000.nsf/0/b89628064c45144e85257056003871f1?OpenDocument].21 Brendan Rivers, U.S. to Use Directed Energy on IEDs in Iraq, eDefenseOnline, June 7, 2005.Christopher Castelli, “General: Ability to Prematurely Detonate Enemy Bombs Badly Needed,”Inside the Navy, August 22, 2005, at [http://www.insidedefense.com/].22 Loren B. Thompson, Iraq: Stop the Bombers, Win the War, June 10, 2005, Lexington Institute,[http://www.lexingtoninstitute.org/defense.asp?aid=616]. 23 Sebastian Sprenger, “U.S., NATO Research Could Help Troops Detect IED Threats fromAfar,” Inside the Pentagon, May 26, 2005.  Noah Shachtman, “Improvised Bombs Baffle Army,”Wired News, January 26, 2005, [http://www.wired.com/news/technology/0,1282,66395,00.html].Air Force into Iraq and Afghanistan to work on counter-IED measures.17  Thetechnologies being evaluated include electronic jammers and pre-detonators, radars, X-rayequipment, robotic explosive ordnance disposal equipment, physical security equipment,and armor for vehicles and personnel.18In the past year, JIEDDO has funded almost 14,000 jammers for Marine and Armyunits, including robots for explosive ordnance disposal teams, Cougar vehicles for routeclearance teams, and Guardian, a man-portable jammer for dismounted operations.  TheJIEDDO also uses intelligence sources to assemble and distribute products to militaryunits daily to support their efforts to destroy the networks that create IEDs.Some counter-IED technologies include a stoichiometric diagnostic device, whichcan decipher chemical signatures of unknown substances through metal or other barriers.Known as the CarBomb Finder model 3C4, it sends out neutrons that cause any substancewithin a container or vehicle to emit back gamma rays that contain unique signatures fromwhich the chemical formulas are derived.19  Electronic jamming devices include the IEDCountermeasures Equipment (ICE) and the Warlock, both of which use low-power radiofrequency energy to block the signals of radio controlled explosives detonators, such ascell phones, satellite phones, and long-range cordless telephones.20  Othercountermeasures include the Joint IED Neutralizer (JIN) and the Neutralizing ImprovisedExplosive Devices with Radio Frequency (NIRF), which produce a high-frequency fieldto neutralize IED electronics at a distance.21  A system now deployed in Iraq, code-namedPING, fits inside a Humvee and sends out electromagnetic waves to penetrate the wallsof buildings to detect IEDs.22  Other sensors, such as the Laser-Induced BreakdownSpectroscopy system (LIBS), detect traces of explosives used for IEDs from as far awayas 30 meters.23However, the Radio Frequency (RF) spectrum in the Iraq combat theater is largelynot managed, and counter-IED radio jammers can sometimes lock onto other U.S.CRS-524 David Fulghum, “Jamming Jam-Up,” Aviation Week & Space Technology, November 7, 2005,vol. 163, no. 18, p. 32.25 David Fulghum, “Attacking Bombs,” Aviation Week, July 31, 2005.26 Michael Moss, “Many Missteps Tied to Delay Of Armor to Protect Soldiers,” The New YorkTimes, March 7, 2005, at [http://www.globalsecurity.org/org/news/2005/050307-armor-missteps.htm].27 Anne Plummer, “Deadly Threat of Explosive Devices in Iraq Prompts Secrecy Debate,” Insidethe Pentagon, November 18, 2004, vol. 20, no. 47.28 Personal communication, JIEDDO, August 28, 2007.29 Ann Tyson, “Thousands of Army Humvees Lack Armor Upgrade,” The Washington Post,February 12, 2007, p. A1.30 David Crane, New Vehicle Armor Developed to Defeat Explosively Formed Penetrators(EFPs), Defense Review.com, June 27, 2007.electronic combat systems because of a lack of coordination of spectrum usage.  Also,Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) can sometimes lose their radio control links due toground-based radio interference caused by counter-IED jammers once they are far awayfrom their control base.  Therefore, DOD is now developing an “Electronic WarfareCoordination Cell” to help sort out problems that can impede friendly operations, orendanger Explosive Ordnance Teams as they disable IEDs on the ground.24Other counter-IED research involves fusing large amounts of intelligence andsurveillance data to monitor when and where bombs are planted.  Using such datagathered by Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), enemy bomb makers can be targetedbefore attacks can be launched.  Sometimes the data can be played backward to see fromwhere the bombers and vehicles came.25Threat data about IEDs is tightly controlled by DOD to avoid giving feedback to theenemy about the effectiveness or ineffectiveness of different IED designs.  Also,proprietary rights must be protected for those companies who produce IEDcountermeasures.  However, these controls may sometimes limit access by othercompanies to important information about the effectiveness of anti-IED systems as theyare tested or used in battle.26  As a result, some industry officials say they are not gettingaccess to all the information they need to help them create the most effective newsolutions to counter IEDs, and suggest that relaxing some of the controls might lead tomore solutions.27  However, the JIEDDO has recognized this issue and is taking steps,including modifying content on its website, to improve access to information at theappropriate clearance levels.28Acquisition and Funding of CountermeasuresSome U.S. Army units in Iraq and Afghanistan reportedly lack the latest Humveearmor kits, and the new deployment of five additional Army brigades has added to thatshortage.29  Humvees can be up-armored through a rebuilding process that adds classifiedtechnology called “Frag 5” or “Frag 6,” which are armor kits that are said to offerincreased protection against side-penetrating EFPs.30  However, the weight of extra armormay sometimes hinder the payload and performance of humvees.  The Army expects toCRS-631 For more information about MRAP vehicles, see CRS Report RS22707, Mine-Resistant,Ambush-Protected (MRAP) Vehicles: Background and Issues for Congress, by Andrew Feickert.32 Tom Brook, “MRAPs Can’t Stop Newest Weapon,” USA Today, May 31, 2007, p. 1A.33 Newsstand, MRAP Sheet, the Insider.com, Jul 12, 2007, at [http://defense.iwpnewsstand.com/insider.asp?issue=07122007].34 Report 110-155, Department of Defense Appropriations Bill, 2008, Senate Committee onAppropriations, September 14, 2007, p. 284.35 Jim Garamone, Supplemental Bill Needed to Fund Anti-IED Effort, Director Says, DefenseLinkNews Article, November 19, 2007.begin taking delivery in 2007 of the first wave of blast-proof trucks, called Mine ResistantAmbush Protected (MRAP) vehicles.31  All Humvees in Iraq are to be replaced byMRAPs, which are better designed to withstand traditional IEDs. However, some DODofficials have reportedly stated that the MRAP may not be able to stop EFPs unlessadditional armor is added, and that this known vulnerability will cause insurgents toincrease their use of EFPs32  The Army and Marine Corps are also planning to graduallyreplace the humvee fleet with the new Joint Light Tactical Vehicle (JLTV), starting inFY2012.33  On August 5, 2007, the House passed H.R. 3222, the Department of DefenseAppropriations Act of 2008, where $500,000,000 was made available to the Joint IEDDefeat Fund, until September 30, 2010.  The Joint IED Defeat Fund allows DOD toallocate funds where needed.  However, under this legislation, funds allocated foroperating and administrative expenses are limited to not more than $110,000,000, andwithin 60 days of enactment, the Office of the Secretary of Defense (OSD) must submita plan to the defense committees explaining the intended management and use of theamounts provided.   In September 2007, the Senate Committee on Appropriations recommended$120,000,000 in funding for the JIEDDO, which is $380,000,000 below the budgetrequest of $500,000,000.  The committee, in its report, expressed strong concern over thelack of a formalized strategic plan to clarify the roles of JIEDDO within the Departmentof Defense and the intelligence community.  The DOD was required, under PL110-28, tofinalize the JIEDDO strategic plan by August 17, 2007, but the Senate committee has notyet received the plan.  Partly because an additional $4 billion for JIEDDO is included inthe FY2008 Global War On Terror supplemental budget request, the committee hasdirected DOD to provide the strategic plan by September 30, 2007, so that Congress canproperly analyze any additional requirements for JIEDDO.34  DOD officials have reportedly said that unless a new supplemental funding bill ispassed by congress, the JIEDDO can sustain operations until January 2008, but will haveto stop funding new initiatives by December 2007.35  

1 Albert Eisele, “Improved Explosives Becoming More Deadly in Iraq,” The Hill, Mar. 28, 2005,[http://www.hillnews.com/thehill/export/TheHill/News/Iraq/explosives1.html].2 DOD Personnel and Procurement Statistics, Defense Manpower Data Center, Casualty Reason,October 7, 2001 through September 16, 2006, online at [http://siadapp.dior.whs.mil/personnel/CASUALTY/gwot_reason.pdf].Congressional Research Service ˜ The Library of CongressCRS Report for CongressReceived through the CRS WebOrder Code RS22330Updated September 25, 2006Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs) in Iraqand Afghanistan:Effects and CountermeasuresClay WilsonSpecialist in Technology and National SecurityForeign Affairs, Defense, and Trade DivisionSummarySince October 2001, Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs, or roadside bombs)have been responsible for many of the more than 2,000 combat deaths in Iraq, and 178combat deaths in Afghanistan.1  IEDs are hidden behind signs and guardrails, underroadside debris, or inside animal carcasses, and encounters with these bombs arebecoming more numerous and deadly in both Iraq and Afghanistan.  The threat includesvehicle-borne IEDs, in which extremists drive cars laden with explosives directly intoa target.  DOD efforts to counter IEDs have proven only marginally effective, and U.S.forces continue to be exposed to the threat at military checkpoints, or whenever onpatrol.  IEDs are increasingly being used in Afghanistan, and DOD reportedly isconcerned that they might eventually be more widely used by other insurgents andterrorists worldwide.  This report will be updated as events warrant.BackgroundImprovised explosive devices, also known as IEDs or roadside bombs, have causedabout half of all the American combat casualties in Iraq, and about 30% of combatcasualties in Afghanistan, both killed and wounded.2  Some observers speculate that muchof the munitions for constructing IEDs in Iraq may have come from large Iraqi militaryordnance deposits looted by insurgents or stockpiles scattered in secret locationsCRS-23 James Glanz, Jim Dwyer, Looting Spree Gutted Ammo Dump, San Francisco Chronicle, October28, 2004.  Byron York, Remember Al Qaqaa?, National Review Online, Feb. 28, 2005,[http://www.nationalreview.com/york/york200502280821.asp].4 Peter Bergen, The Taliban, Regrouped and Rearmed, The Washington Post, Sept. 10, 2006, B1.Helen Cooper, NATO Chief Says More Troops Are Needed in Afghanistan, New York Times,Sept. 22, 2006, p.10.5  Definition from Global Security.org, at [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/intro/ied.htm].6 Times Wire Service, Italian Troops End Iraq Mission, Los Angeles Times, Sept. 22, 2006.7 Peter Bergen, The Taliban, Regrouped and Rearmed, The Washington Post, Sept. 10, 2006, B4.8 The Army has reportedly lost multiple helicopters in such medevac ambushes.   Greg Grant,Aerial IEDs Target U.S. Copters, Defense News, January 16, 2006.throughout that country before the war.3  In Afghanistan, the munitions supply issupported by funds from an expanding opium trade.4  IEDs can utilize commercial or military explosives, and often the bomb isconstructed in a home using materials at hand.5  Triggering methods include using a cellphone, a garage door opener, or a child’s radio-controlled toy, or may be as simple asrunning over a rubber hose to produce enough air pressure to activate a detonating switch.The typical IED terrorist cell can consists of six to eight people, including a financier,bomb maker, emplacer, triggerman, spotter, and often a cameraman.  Videos of explodingU.S. vehicles and dead Americans are distributed via the Internet to win new supporters.Foreign radicals see these images as confirmation that the American and coalition forcesare vulnerable.  Increasingly, however , vehicle-borne IEDs are used in Iraq andAfghanistan to strike police stations, markets, and mosques to kill local citizens as wellas U.S. troops.  Recent news reports indicate that insurgents in Iraq have now resorted tokidnaping victims for the purpose of secretly booby-trapping their cars.  The unknowingvictims are then released, and their vehicles are detonated by remote control when theyreach a certain location.6In Afghanistan, more than 40 suicide bomb incidents have been reported in 2006.Observers have indicated that the Taliban forces in Afghanistan appear to have learnedsome IED techniques from the Iraqi insurgents.  Although these attacks have not yet beenas deadly as those in Iraq, because of increasing violence and the growing number of IEDincidents, many areas of Afghanistan are reportedly becoming too dangerous forreconstruction efforts to continue.7  Over time, the insurgents in Iraq have adapted to U.S. countermeasures, and IEDshave grown more lethal.  IEDs have been used to draw U.S. soldiers into a coordinatedambush.  For example, in Iraq when first responders arrive to give aid to initial IEDvictims, or when a medevac helicopter touches down on a nearby temporary landing zone,the insurgents sometimes then trigger other pre-placed bombs, or begin a follow-on attackwith rifles or grenades.8  Recently, insurgents in Iraq have deployed IEDs with shapedcharges that can penetrate even heavy vehicle armor.  Also, in response to the use ofheavier armor on High-Mobility Multi-Purpose Wheeled Vehicles (Humvees) and otherCRS-39 John Anderson, Steve Fainaru, Jonathan Finer, “Bigger, Stronger Homemade Bombs Now toBlame for Half of U.S. Deaths,” The Washington Post, Oct. 26, 2005, p. A1.10 Daniel Goure, The Power in a Single Picture, Oct. 14, 2004, Lexington Institute,[http://lexingtoninstitute.org/432.shtml].11 Daniel Goure, Better than an Abrams, May 28, 2004, Lexington Institute,[http://lexingtoninstitute.org/38.shtml]. 12 Daniel Goure, The Power in a Single Picture, Oct. 14, 2004, Lexington Institute,[http://lexingtoninstitute.org/432.shtml].13 Bruce Lieberman, “SDSU professor focuses laser research on finding killer explosives in Iraq”,S ignOnSanDiego.com ,  Dec. 27, 2005, [ht tp://www.signonsandiego.com/articlelink/sdsufoundation4/sdsufoundation4.html].14 Sgt. Stephen D’Alessio, 2nd Marine Division, Marines schooled in new bomb protection, July7 ,  2 0 0 5 ,  [ h t t p : / / w w w . m a r i n e s . m i l / m a r i n e l i n k / m c n 2 0 0 0 . n s f / 0 /b89628064c45144e85257056003871f1?OpenDocument].combat vehicles, insurgents have developed IEDs that are simply more powerful.9  In oneincident in 2004, after a 22-ton Bradley Fighting Vehicle ran over a large IED, thearmored bottom plate of the vehicle was reportedly found some 60 yards from the site ofthe explosion.10  In contrast, military units equipped with the 19-ton Stryker medium-weight armored vehicle, have reportedly suffered a lower number of catastrophic vehiclelosses in Iraq due to enemy attack.  With a maximum speed of more than 60 mph, theStryker can dash past ambushes and roadside IEDs that might catch the slower movingAbrams tank and Bradley.11  Between December 2003 and October 2004, news reportsshow that Strykers deployed in Iraq have successfully withstood 56 attacks by IEDs.  Evenwhen vehicles were rendered inoperable by the attacks, there was reportedly no loss of lifeamong the Stryker crews.12CountermeasuresTo evaluate countermeasures, DOD has set up the Joint IED Defeat Organization(JIEDDO), directed by retired Army Gen. Montgomery Meigs, to work with variousnational laboratories, the Department of Energy, contractors, and academia.Countermeasures are tested at the National Training Center at Fort Irwin, California.  Thetechnologies being evaluated include electronic jammers, radars, X-ray equipment, roboticexplosive ordnance disposal equipment, physical security equipment, and armor forvehicles and personnel.13 Examples of electronic jamming systems mounted on military vehicles include theIED Countermeasures Equipment (ICE) and the Warlock, both of which use low-powerradio frequency energy to block the signals of radio controlled explosives initiators, suchas cell phones, satellite phones, and long-range cordless telephones.14  The Army hasrecently ordered thousands of these radio-frequency jammer devices.  However, expertsreportedly caution that the jammers may only be partially effective because they must beset to operate within the right frequency range in order to stop an IED.Other IED countermeasures being explored include technology that can first detectIEDs from afar, and then generate a pulse of directed high-power electromagnetic energyto prematurely detonate them, or burn out and destroy their circuitry.  An example is theCRS-415 Christopher Castelli, “General: Ability to Prematurely Detonate Enemy Bombs Badly Needed,”Inside the Navy, Aug. 22, 2005, at [http://www.insidedefense.com/].16 Loren B. Thompson, Iraq: Stop the Bombers, Win the War, June 10, 2005, Lexington Institute,[http://www.lexingtoninstitute.org/defense.asp?aid=616]. 17 Sebastian Sprenger, “U.S., NATO Research Could Help Troops Detect IED Threats fromAfar,” Inside the Pentagon, May 26, 2005.  Noah Shachtman, “Improvised Bombs Baffle Army,”Wired News, Jan. 26, 2005, [http://www.wired.com/news/technology/0,1282,66395,00.html].18  David Fulghum, “Jamming Jam-Up”, Aviation Week & Space Technology, Nov. 7, 2005, Vol.163, No. 18, P.32.19 Noah Shachtman, “Improvised Bombs Baffle Army,” Wired News, Jan. 26, 2006,[http://www.wired.com/news/technology/0,1282,63036,00.html?tw=wn_story_related].20 Michael Moss, “Many Missteps Tied to Delay Of Armor to Protect Soldiers,” The New YorkTimes, Mar. 7, 2005, online at [http://www.globalsecurity.org/org/news/2005/050307-armor-missteps.htm].Neutralizing Improvised Explosive Devices with Radio Frequency (NIRF) whichproduces a very high-frequency field at very short range that can neutralize an IEDselectronics.15  A Pentagon microwave project, code-named PING, and now deployed inIraq, has reportedly been successful at helping locate insurgent weapons.  The machine,which fits inside a Humvee, sends out electromagnetic waves that can penetrate the wallsof a building to detect IEDs.16  Other sensors, such as the Laser-Induced BreakdownSpectroscopy system (LIBS), are being developed to detect traces of explosives used forIEDs from as far away as 30 meters.17However, much of the Radio Frequency (RF) spectrum in the Iraq combat theater isun-managed and can sometimes cause dangerous interference with radio communicationson the ground.   Sometimes IED radio jammers can lock onto other new electronic combatsystems because of a lack of coordination for spectrum usage.  Other times, when ajammer is on, a soldier cannot use his radio for communications.  The soldier must shutoff the jammer to send and receive, thus opening a window of vulnerability for extremiststo use.  Also, Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) can sometimes lose their radio controllinks due to ground-based radio interference once they are far away from their controlbase.  Therefore, DOD is now developing an “Electronic Warfare Coordination Cell” tohelp sort out problems that can impede friendly operations, or endanger ExplosiveOrdnance Teams as they disable IEDs on the ground.18 The “Talon” is a bomb-disposal Unmanned Ground Vehicle (UGV), or robot, thatcomes equipped with a mechanical arm to inspect and relocate suspected IEDs.  Morethan a hundred of the remote-control robots are now being used in Iraq and Afghanistan,with an equal amount on order. Another robot, called the “PackBot” has also been usedby the Army to clear bombs and explore suspected terrorist hideouts.19Threat data about IEDs is tightly controlled by DOD to avoid giving feedback to theenemy about the effectiveness or ineffectiveness of different IED designs.  Also,proprietary rights must be protected for those companies who produce IEDcountermeasures.  However, these controls may sometimes limit access by othercompanies to important information about the effectiveness of anti-IED systems as theyare tested or used in battle.20  As a result, some industry officials say they are not gettingCRS-521 Anne Plummer, “Deadly Threat of Explosive Devices in Iraq Prompts Secrecy Debate,” Insidethe Pentagon, Nov. 18, 2004, vol. 20, no. 47.22 Defense Logistics: Actions Needed to Improve the Availability of Critical Items during Currentand Future Operations, GAO-05-275, Apr. 8, 2005.23 Testimony of Claud M. Bolton, Assistant Secretary of the Army, Acquisition, Logistics andtechnology, before the House Committee on Armed Forces, Nov. 2, 2005, p.2.24 Testimony of Kenneth Krieg, Undersecretary of Defense, Acquisition, Technology andLogistics, before the House Committee on Armed Forces, Nov. 2, 2005, p.7. 25 The TSWG uses the CTTSO Broad Agency Announcement (BAA) Information DeliverySystem (BIDS) to disseminate BAA information and collect proposals.   TSWG operates underthe policy oversight of the Department of State (DOS) Coordinator for Counterterrorism andunder the management and technical oversight of the Department of Defense (DOD) AssistantSecretary of Defense for Special Operations and Low-Intensity Conflict (ASD(SO/LIC)),[https://www.bids.tswg.gov/tswg/bids.nsf/Main?OpenFrameset&6M8J6A].26 Glenn Maffei, “Defense Officials Worry Insurgents Will Change IEDS Tactics, Tech,” Insidethe Army, May 9, 2005.access to all the information they need to help them create the most effective newsolutions to counter IEDs, and suggest that relaxing some of the controls might lead tomore solutions.21  Acquisition of CountermeasuresA  recent GAO report indicates that acquisition delays may have increased thevulnerability of U.S. forces to the IED threat, stating “... specific problems delayed DOD’sacquisition of three important items we reviewed (Interceptor body armor, lithiumbatteries, and up-armored High-Mobility Multi-Purpose Wheeled Vehicles).  DOD’sacquisition decision did not maximize available capacity to produce up-armoredHigh-Mobility Multi-Purpose Wheeled Vehicles and add-on armor kits nor did it giveCongress visibility over the basis for its acquisition solution.  These acquisitionchallenges impeded DOD’s ability to respond to rapidly increasing demands.”22 Actions taken by DOD to minimize future acquisition delays include  implementinga “Rapid Fielding Initiative” (RFI) intended to ensure that soldiers have the latestavailable equipment.   The RFI has reportedly reduced some acquisition cycles to weeksor days.23  Additionally, the DOD Quick Reaction Special Projects (QRSP) program nowsupports the Combating Terrorism Technology Support Office (CTTSO).24   The CTTSOsolicits proposals to identify technologies for near and long-term solutions to terrorismthreats.  The Technical Support Working Group within the CTTSO seeks to prioritize andcoordinate interagency and international research and development (R&D) for combatingterrorism.25  Also, on April 30, 2005, the Army was granted “rapid acquisition authority”by Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld, meaning that the traditional DOD acquisitionprocess could be set aside, allowing a manufacturer of a special, man-portable IEDsjammer device to be chosen within only a 15-day time period.26 CRS-627 Associated Press, U.S. Spending Billions to ‘Defeat’ IEDs in Iraq, MSNBC.Com, Mar. 13,2006.[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/11813983/print/1/displaymode/1098/].28 Keith Costa, “England Wants Counter-IED Funding in Services’ Outyear Budget Plans”, Insidethe Army, Sept. 18, 2006.  29  Jason Sherman, “Navy Planes to be Upgraded, Modified to Hunt for Roadside Bombs”, Insidethe Army, Sept. 18, 2006.30 Jen DiMascio, “Pentagon Transfers $160 Million to Buy Protection Equipment,” Inside theArmy, Jan. 17, 2005.31 Jen DiMascio, “Congress OKs $129.7 Million Transfer to Fund IEDS Countermeasures,”Inside the Army, May 30, 2005.32 Glenn, Maffei, “Order Made for Final “Warlock” Batch to Tackle IEDS Problem in Iraq,”Inside the Army, July 25, 2005.33 Reprogramming Action FY 06-09 IR.34  Personal communication, Joint IED Defeat Organization, Sept. 25, 2006.Funding for IED CountermeasuresFrom 2004 to 2006, approximately $6.1 billion has reportedly been spent on U.S.efforts to defeat the threat from IEDs.27  In 2006, DOD directed the services to fundseveral counter-IED initiatives, including (1) the Global Anti-Terrorism and OperationalReadiness Course, (2) Counter Radio Controlled IED Electronic Warfare, and (3) RoboticSystems.28  DOD also reportedly has plans to upgrading Navy P-3 aircraft to assist in thesearch for roadside bombs.  Funding for this was included in a transfer of $217.8 millionfrom a funding account for defeating IEDs, into the Navy aircraft procurement budgetline.29  In addition, DOD has proposed spending $617 million to build new supply roadsin Iraq that bypass urban centers where convoys are exposed to IEDs.  Funding to purchase IED countermeasure equipment has traditionally come throughcongressional plus-ups and reprogramming actions, and not through ordinary line-itemfunding in the fiscal year budget.30  On May 24, 2005, Congress approved a transfer of$129.7 million from the Iraqi Freedom Fund to purchase mobile Warlock jammers.31  OnJuly 13, 2005, a reprogramming action transferred $10 million from the Iraqi FreedomFund for two new anti-IEDs systems: $3.5 million for 50 Small, Lightweight AdvancedModular Digital Electronic Protection Systems (SLAM-DEP), and $6.5 million topurchase 187 low-cost, expendable robots for explosive ordnance disposal.32  OnDecember 5, 2005, DOD reprogrammed an additional $278,000,000 from the IraqFreedom Fund to be used to detect and neutralize IEDs.33  The Department of DefenseAppropriations Act, 2006, (P.L. 109-148), signed December 30, 2005, states that$1,360,000,000  from the Iraq Freedom Fund is available for the Joint IED DefeatOrganization. According to sources in the Joint IED Defeat Organization, total funding for IEDcountermeasures administered through the JIEDDO for FY2005 was $1.3440 billion, and$3.4871 billion for FY2006.34   The FY2007 Defense Appropriations bill, as approved bythe House and Senate conference committee, provides $1.9 billion in funding for theJIEDDO.

1 DOD Personnel and Military Casualty Statistics, Defense Manpower Data Center, CasualtySummary by Reason, October 7, 2001 through August 18, 2007, available at[http://siadapp.dmdc.osd.mil/personnel/CASUALTY/gwot_reason.pdf].2 The suicide attacks on American hotels in Jordan in November 2005 represent the first knowncase where Iraqis have conducted suicide bombings against the United States outside of Iraq.Brent Sadler, Jordan Confirms Al Qaeda Behind Hotel Blasts, CNN, November 12, 2005.3 DOD Personnel and Military Casualty Statistics, Defense Manpower Data Center, Casualty(continued...)Order Code RS22330Updated August 28, 2007Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs) in Iraq and Afghanistan: Effects and CountermeasuresClay WilsonSpecialist in Technology and National SecurityForeign Affairs, Defense, and Trade DivisionSummarySince October 2001, improvised explosive devices (IEDs, roadside bombs, andsuicide car bombs) have been responsible for many of the more than 3,000 combatdeaths in Iraq and many of the more than 240 combat deaths in Afghanistan.1  Vehicle-borne IEDs and car bombs are now used to strike police stations, markets, and mosques,killing local citizens as well as U.S. troops.  U.S. forces counter the devices throughutilizing intelligence sources and by disrupting portions of the radio spectrum thatinsurgents use to trigger IEDs.  However, insurgents quickly adapt to countermeasures,and new, more sophisticated IEDs are increasingly being used in both Iraq andAfghanistan.  Department of Defense (DOD) officials have also charged that Iran maybe supplying new IED technology to insurgents in Iraq.  There is growing concern thatIEDs might eventually be used by other insurgents and terrorists worldwide.2  Thisreport will be updated as events warrant.BackgroundImprovised explosive devices, also known as IEDs, roadside bombs, and suicide carbombs, have caused over 60% of all American combat casualties in Iraq and 50% ofcombat casualties in Afghanistan, both killed and wounded.3  Some observers speculateCRS-23 (...continued)Summary by Reason, October 7, 2001 through August 18, 2007; available at[http://siadapp.dmdc.osd.mil/personnel/CASUALTY/gwot_reason.pdf].4 James Glanz and Jim Dwyer, “Looting Spree Gutted Ammo Dump,” San Francisco Chronicle,October 28, 2004.  Byron York, Remember Al Qaqaa?, National Review Online, February 28,2005 [http://www.nationalreview.com/york/york200502280821.asp].5 Peter Bergen, “The Taliban, Regrouped and Rearmed,” The Washington Post, September 10,2006, B1.  Helen Cooper, “NATO Chief Says More Troops Are Needed in Afghanistan,” TheNew York Times, September 22, 2006, p.10.6 Jason Straziuso, Taliban netting millions from poppies, Associated Press, Apr 10, 2007.7 Colum Lynch and Griff Witte, Afghan Opium Trade Hits New Peak, The Washington Post,August 28, 2007, A.3.8 Lionel Beehner, Iraq: suicide Attacks, the Council on Foreign Relations, August 1, 2005.Michael O’Hanlon and Jason Campbell, The Iraq Index, the Brookings Institution, July 31, 2006.9 Peter Bergen, “The Taliban, Regrouped and Rearmed,” The Washington Post, September 10,2006, B4.10 Gen. Montgomery Meigs, On the Offensive: The Battle Against IEDs, Marine Times, April 16,2007, at [http://www.harmonieweb.org:40793/news/Pages/OnTheOffensive.aspx].11 Times Wire Service, “Italian Troops End Iraq Mission,” The Los Angeles Times, September22, 2006.that much of the munitions for constructing IEDs in Iraq may have come from large Iraqimilitary ordnance deposits looted by insurgents, or from stockpiles scattered in secretlocations throughout that country before the war.4  In Afghanistan, the IED munitionssupply is supported by funds from an expanding opium trade.5  Afghanistan’s opium cropreportedly grew 59% in 2006, yielding 6,100 tons, or 90% of the world’s supply.6  In2007, the opium crop grew by another 34% and is now the source of 93% of the world’ssupply of heroin and morphine.7  The largest group of suicide attackers in Iraq reportedly is Sunni Iraqis, followed byforeign fighters usually from Saudi Arabia, Syria, and Kuwait.8  Observers have indicatedthat the Taliban forces in Afghanistan appear to have learned some IED techniques fromthe Iraqi insurgents, and some areas of Afghanistan are now reportedly becoming toodangerous for reconstruction efforts there to continue.9  DOD has found that insurgentsbuild and deploy IEDs by using networks that, for centuries in Afghanistan and Iraq, haveformed the sinews of commerce and survival for tribes and factions.10In Iraq, small, highly skilled IED cells often hire themselves out to other insurgentgroups, such as al-Qaeda in Iraq or the Sunni group Ansaar al Sunna.  They advertise theirskills on the Internet, and are temporarily contracted on a per-job basis but otherwiseremain autonomous.11  A typical IED terrorist cell consists of six to eight people,including a financier, bomb maker, emplacer, triggerman, spotter, and often a cameraman.Videos of exploding U.S. vehicles and dead Americans are distributed via the Internet towin new supporters.CRS-312 Sara Carter, Iran-Arms Importers Captured in Iraq, Washington Times, Jul 28, 2007, p.1.13 Tom Brook, Military tests new armored vehicle, USA Today, Jun 11, 2007, p.1A.14 Joshua Partlow, “Military Ties Iran to Arms in Iraq,” The Washington Post, February 12, 2007,p. A1.15 Serial numbers for infrared triggers have been traced to bulk device orders by Iran.  Precisionmanufacturing techniques required to produce EFP bombs indicate that some may have beenconstructed in Iran.  Michael Isikoff and Mark Hosenball, Terror Watch: Tracking Iran’s Rolein Iraq Attacks, Newsweek, Jan 24, 2007.  Tom Brook, “U.S. blames Iran for new bombs in Iraq,”USA Today, January 31, 2007 [http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/iraq/2007-01-30-ied-iran_x.htm].16 The Army has reportedly suffered losses because of ambushes that follow IED attacks.   GregGrant, “Aerial IEDs Target U.S. Copters,” Defense News, January 16, 2006.  John Anderson,Steve Fainaru, Jonathan Finer, “Bigger, Stronger Homemade Bombs Now to Blame for Half ofU.S. Deaths,” The Washington Post, October 26, 2005, p. A1.  Ann Tyson, “Thousands of ArmyHumvees Lack Armor Upgrade,” The Washington Post, February 12, 2007, p. A1.DOD officials reportedly captured four Iranian terrorists in July 2007 who areaccused of smuggling explosives and personnel from Iran into Iraq.12  Iran is suspectedof supplying Iraq insurgents with IEDs, training, and new designs and technology forexplosive devices, such as “passive infrared” electronic sensors that are used fortriggering roadside bombs.  The new sensors are more resistant to electromagneticcountermeasures now employed by U.S. forces.  DOD officials also suspect that Iran issupplying Iraq insurgents with a more lethal IED bomb design called an explosivelyformed projectile (EFP).  An EFP is made from a pipe filled with explosives and cappedby a specially shaped metal disk.  When the explosives detonate, they transform the diskinto a jet of molten metal capable of penetrating armor.  EFPs reportedly strike withenough power to cause pieces of a targeted vehicle’s heavy armor to turn into shrapnel,making them much more deadly than traditional IED weapons.  DOD officials report therewere 69 attacks utilizing EFPs in April 2007.13U.S. military officials suspect that EFPs and other weapons were smuggled into Iraqby members of the Quds Force, which is part of the Iranian Revolutionary Guard.  Thesame type of EFP device has been used by Shiite organizations in Lebanon, whereHezbollah receives military support from Iran.  However, Iranian government officialsdeny involvement with any transfer of these weapons to Iraq.14  In addition, U.S.intelligence officials have reportedly said that most IED attacks against U.S. forces in Iraqcome from Sunni insurgents rather than from the Shia elements most directly backed byIran.15  Over time, the insurgents in Iraq have adapted to many U.S. countermeasures, andseveral DOD officials have stated that protective equipment sometimes seems to be lesseffective after being deployed for only a few months.16CountermeasuresDOD has established the Joint IED Defeat Organization (JIEDDO) to investigatecountermeasures along with various national laboratories, the Department of Energy,contractors, and academia. The Marine Counter Improvised Explosive Device TechnologyDirectorate and the Army Electronic Warfare Division also work with the JIEDDO toCRS-417 Brenda Steele, “Vice Chairman Visits Troops in Afghanistan, Focuses on IED Issues,” DefenseLink, September 24, 2006 [http://www.defenselink.mil/news/NewsArticle.aspx?ID=1156].18 Brenda Steele, “Vice Chairman Visits Troops in Afghanistan, Focuses on IED Issues,” DefenseLink, September 24, 2006 [http://www.defenselink.mil/news/NewsArticle.aspx?ID=1156].19 Bruce Lieberman, “SDSU professor focuses laser research on finding killer explosives in Iraq,”SignOnSanDiego.com, December 27, 2005; available at [http://www.signonsandiego.com/articlelink/sdsufoundation4/sdsufoundation4.html].20 Steve Grossman, Car Bomb Detector Employs a Revolutionary New Approach, RFDesign,November 9, 2005 [http://rfdesign.com/military_defense_electronics/news/car_bomb_detector/].21 Sgt. Stephen D’Alessio, 2nd Marine Division, Marines schooled in new bomb protection, July7, 2005, available at [http://www.marines.mil/marinelink/mcn2000.nsf/0/b89628064c45144e85257056003871f1?OpenDocument].22 Brendan Rivers, U.S. to Use Directed Energy on IEDs in Iraq, eDefenseOnline, June 7, 2005.Christopher Castelli, “General: Ability to Prematurely Detonate Enemy Bombs Badly Needed,”Inside the Navy, August 22, 2005, at [http://www.insidedefense.com/].23 Loren B. Thompson, Iraq: Stop the Bombers, Win the War, June 10, 2005, Lexington Institute,[http://www.lexingtoninstitute.org/defense.asp?aid=616]. 24 Sebastian Sprenger, “U.S., NATO Research Could Help Troops Detect IED Threats from(continued...)reduce the IED threat.17  DOD has also sent electronic warfare officers from the Navy andAir Force into Iraq and Afghanistan to work on counter-IED measures.18  Thetechnologies being evaluated include electronic jammers and pre-detonators, radars, X-rayequipment, robotic explosive ordnance disposal equipment, physical security equipment,and armor for vehicles and personnel.19In the past year, JIEDDO has funded almost 14,000 jammers for Marine and Armyunits, including robots for explosive ordnance disposal teams, Cougar vehicles for routeclearance teams, and Guardian, a man-portable jammer for dismounted operations.  TheJIEDDO also uses intelligence sources to assemble and distribute products to militaryunits daily to support their efforts to destroy the networks that create IEDs.Some counter-IED technologies include a stoichiometric diagnostic device, whichcan decipher chemical signatures of unknown substances through metal or other barriers.Known as the CarBomb Finder model 3C4, it sends out neutrons that cause any substancewithin a container or vehicle to emit back gamma rays that contain unique signatures fromwhich the chemical formulas are derived.20  Electronic jamming devices include the IEDCountermeasures Equipment (ICE) and the Warlock, both of which use low-power radiofrequency energy to block the signals of radio controlled explosives detonators, such ascell phones, satellite phones, and long-range cordless telephones.21  Othercountermeasures include the Joint IED Neutralizer (JIN) and the Neutralizing ImprovisedExplosive Devices with Radio Frequency (NIRF), which produce a high-frequency fieldto neutralize IED electronics at a distance.22  A system now deployed in Iraq, code-namedPING, fits inside a Humvee and sends out electromagnetic waves to penetrate the wallsof buildings to detect IEDs.23  Other sensors, such as the Laser-Induced BreakdownSpectroscopy system (LIBS), detect traces of explosives used for IEDs from as far awayas 30 meters.24CRS-524 (...continued)Afar,” Inside the Pentagon, May 26, 2005.  Noah Shachtman, “Improvised Bombs Baffle Army,”Wired News, January 26, 2005, [http://www.wired.com/news/technology/0,1282,66395,00.html].25 David Fulghum, “Jamming Jam-Up,” Aviation Week & Space Technology, November 7, 2005,Vol. 163, No. 18, P.32.26 David Fulghum, “Attacking Bombs,” Aviation Week, July 31, 2005.27 Michael Moss, “Many Missteps Tied to Delay Of Armor to Protect Soldiers,” The New YorkTimes, March 7, 2005, online at [http://www.globalsecurity.org/org/news/2005/050307-armor-missteps.htm].28 Anne Plummer, “Deadly Threat of Explosive Devices in Iraq Prompts Secrecy Debate,” Insidethe Pentagon, November 18, 2004, vol. 20, no. 47.29 Personal communication, JIEDDO, Aug 28, 200730 Ann Tyson, “Thousands of Army Humvees Lack Armor Upgrade,” The Washington Post,(continued...)However, the Radio Frequency (RF) spectrum in the Iraq combat theater is largelynot managed, and counter-IED radio jammers can sometimes lock onto other U.S.electronic combat systems because of a lack of coordination of spectrum usage.  Also,Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) can sometimes lose their radio control links due toground-based radio interference caused by counter-IED jammers once they are far awayfrom their control base.  Therefore, DOD is now developing an “Electronic WarfareCoordination Cell” to help sort out problems that can impede friendly operations, orendanger Explosive Ordnance Teams as they disable IEDs on the ground.25Other counter-IED research involves fusing large amounts of intelligence andsurveillance data to monitor when and where bombs are planted.  Using such datagathered by Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), enemy bomb makers can be targetedbefore attacks can be launched.  Sometimes the data can be played backward to see fromwhere the bombers and vehicles came.26Threat data about IEDs is tightly controlled by DOD to avoid giving feedback to theenemy about the effectiveness or ineffectiveness of different IED designs.  Also,proprietary rights must be protected for those companies who produce IEDcountermeasures.  However, these controls may sometimes limit access by othercompanies to important information about the effectiveness of anti-IED systems as theyare tested or used in battle.27  As a result, some industry officials say they are not gettingaccess to all the information they need to help them create the most effective newsolutions to counter IEDs, and suggest that relaxing some of the controls might lead tomore solutions.28  However, the JIEDDO has recognized this issue and is taking steps,including modifying content on its website, to improve access to information at theappropriate clearance levels.29Acquisition and Funding of CountermeasuresSome U.S. Army units in Iraq and Afghanistan reportedly lack the latest Humveearmor kits, and the new deployment of five additional Army brigades has added to thatshortage.30  Humvees can be up-armored through a rebuilding process that adds classifiedCRS-630 (...continued)February 12, 2007, A1.31 David Crane, New Vehicle Armor Developed to Defeat Explosively Formed Penetrators(EFPs), Defense Review.com, June 27, 2007.32 For more information about MRAP vehicles, see CRS Report RS22707, Mine-Resistant,Ambush-Protected (MRAP) Vehicles: Background and Issues for Congress, August 21, 2007, byAndrew Feickert.33 Tom Brook, MRAPs can’t stop newest weapon, USA Today, May 31, 2007, p.1A.34 Newsstand, MRAP Sheet, the Insider.com, Jul 12, 2007, [http://defense.iwpnewsstand.com/insider.asp?issue=07122007].35 Office of the Secretary of Defense, FY 2008 Global War on Terror Request, February 2007.36 See CRS Report RL33110, The Cost of Iraq, Afghanistan, and Other Global War on TerrorOperations Since 9/11, by Amy Belasco, and CRS Report RL33999, Defense: FY2008Authorization and Appropriations, by Pat Towell, Stephen Daggett, and Amy Belasco.technology called “Frag 5” or “Frag 6,” which are armor kits that are said to offerincreased protection against side-penetrating EFPs.31  However, the weight of extra armormay sometimes hinder the payload and performance of humvees.  In October 2007, theArmy expects to begin taking delivery of the first wave of blast-proof trucks, called MineResistant Ambush Protected (MRAP) vehicles.32  All Humvees in Iraq are to be replacedby MRAPs, which are better designed to withstand traditional IEDs.  However, someDOD officials have reportedly stated that the MRAP may not be able to stop EFPs unlessadditional armor is added, and that this known vulnerability will cause insurgents toincrease their use of EFPs.33  The Army and Marine Corps are also planning to graduallyreplace the humvee fleet with the new Joint Light Tactical Vehicle (JLTV), starting inFY2012.  The FY2008 budget request includes $82.3 million for JLTV research anddevelopment, $4.6 million for program management, and $77.6 million for prototypedesign and development.34  On August 5, 2007, the House passed H.R. 3222, the Department of DefenseAppropriations Act of 2008, where $500,000,000 was made available to the Joint IEDDefeat Fund, until September 30, 2010.  The Joint IED Defeat Fund allows DOD toallocate funds where needed.  However, under this legislation, funds allocated foroperating and administrative expenses are limited to not more than $110,000,000, andwithin 60 days of enactment, the Office of the Secretary of Defense (OSD) must submita plan to the defense committees explaining the intended management and use of theamounts provided. For FY2006 (Title IX Bridge Fund and FY-06 Supplement), the funding enacted forthe Joint IED Defeat Fund was $3.3 billion.  For FY2007 (Title IX Bridge Fund andFY2007 Supplement), the amount was $4.3 billion.  The FY2008 budget request fromDOD (Baseline DOD and FY2008 Global War On Terror Budget Request) is $4.5 billion.The FY2008 budget request includes for programs such as Attack the Network($926,000), Defeat the Device ($2.7 million), and Train the Force ($334,000).35  The totalfunding thus far is $7.6 billion, and including the FY2008 budget request, the total is$12.1 billion.36

Since October 2001, Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs, or roadside bombs) have been responsible for many of the more than 2,000 combat deaths in Iraq, and 178 combat deaths in Afghanistan. IEDs are hidden behind signs and guardrails, under roadside debris, or inside animal carcasses, and encounters with these bombs are becoming more numerous and deadly in both Iraq and Afghanistan. Department of Defense (DOD) efforts to counter IEDs have proven only marginally effective, and U.S. forces continue to be exposed to the threat at military checkpoints, or whenever on patrol. IEDs are increasingly being used in Afghanistan, and DOD reportedly is concerned that they might eventually be more widely used by other insurgents and terrorists worldwide

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Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs) in Iraq and Afghanistan: Effects and Countermeasures

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