Author name used in this publication: Bryan PongVersion of RecordPublishe

Lo, E

Pang, H

Pong, BMH

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DC ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS IN BUILDINGS  Huey PANGa, Edward LOb, Bryan PONGa  a Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong SAR, China b Department of Electrical Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Hong Kong SAR, China  Abstract With the gaining of popularity of concept of distribution generation (DG) and sustainable development, DG with renewable energy (RE) sources is one of the possible ways for building energy supply in the future. The current “DC-AC-DC” route from DG to DC loads via inverters may not be rational from the viewpoint of system simplicity and energy efficiency, a review on the current electrical distribution systems should be made. This paper reviews and evaluates possibilities of using DC electrical distribution systems with increasing RE resources and DC loads. There is potential of increasing energy efficiency and power quality. Drawbacks and merits will also be identified.  Keywords: distributed generation, building distribution system, energy efficiency, DC system, renewable energy  INTRODUCTION  AC system has been a standard for electricity distribution in buildings for a long time. It is rational to use AC rather than DC as traditionally most of the loads (such as motors, lighting) adapt AC very well and it is convenient to distribute power from power plants, which are also AC in nature, over long distance. However, with the gaining of popularity of concept of distribution generation (DG) and sustainable development, it is clear that DG with renewable energy (RE) sources is the way for building energy supply in the future. From the supply side, DG is constituted by small size local generators and storage systems that generate DC, such as photovoltaics (PV) and fuel cells. These DC systems use grid-connected inverters to interface with the AC grid. From the demand side, number of electrical apparatus which use DC is increasing due to rapid development of electronics technologies. Examples include cell phone chargers, computers and network equipment, UPS and emerging LED lighting technologies which is believed to be for the future interior lighting. For example, Kurtz [1] stated that LED lighting and PV have similarities and have potentials to save enormous amount of electricity.   Currently all these devices use PWM-based AC-DC converters to interface with the AC grid. The “DC-AC-DC” route from DG to DC loads may not be rational from the viewpoint of system simplicity and energy efficiency.  There is an incentive to look for alternative distribution systems, which have been suggested in various literatures. Larruskain et al [2] has pointed out that DC transmission has more advanatages such as stability, controlled emergency support and no contribution to short circuit level. Brush’s survey [3] indicated the trend of switching from centralized power to distributed power architectures. Local DC distribution network with DG resources has also been proposed by Brenna et al [h], therefore a review on current electrical distribution systems should be made to adapt the trend.    gridACAC-DCconverterDC-ACinverterDCloadRE sourcesDCAC-DC-ACConverter+inverterInverter-drivenAC loadACloadDC linkAC grid   Fig.1: Schematic of current building’s distributions system   THE APPROACH  As both the energy source and loads are getting towards DC, it is logical to have a preliminary analysis on a DC distribution system for a building as the first step of investigating alternatives of electrical distribution systems in buildings.    An analysis on the impact of changing from existing AC system to DC system has been performed by a case study. In order not to complicate the analysis and serves as a preliminary study, we assume the existing 220V (380V peak) 3-phase AC system is replaced by a corresponding centralized DC system rated at 400V and evaluate potential energy savings that can be achieved by loss reduction in distribution system of a 30-storey (100m) high building, which is typical in Hong Kong.   2006 2nd International Conference on Power Electronics Systems and Applications115 of 288gridACcentralized DC-DCconverterOtherDCloadPV(DC)centralized AC-DCConverter400Vdc gridac gridwind(DC)Storage(e.g. fuel cell)ACloadDistributedDC-DCconverter400VdcA/CDirect feed400VdcLightingDirect feed Fig.2: Schematic of proposed distributions system  Efficiency improvement on distribution system  A schematic of a building’s electrical distribution system is shown below:   Tx distribution boardSub-distributionboardLocated on G/F of a buildingRising busbarmain circuit Sub-main circuitConsumerloadsFinal circuit   Fig. 3:  Illustration of main circuit and sub-main circuit of a building   Main circuit (100m running from Tx to roof) System 3-phase 4-wire 380V 400A  400Vdc 380A 2-wire system CSA (mm2) 185 185 Voltage drop  (mV/A/m) 0.21 0.23 Distribution loss 2.2% 2.2%  Table 1: Comparison of distribution loss between AC and proposed DC system in main circuit  At this point, there is no significant difference in terms of energy loss. Then the situation in sub-main circuit was analyzed:  Sub-main  (40m running from main to distribution board) System 1-phase 2-wire 220V 100A 400Vdc 55A  2-wire system CSA (mm2) 35 16 35 Voltage drop  (mV/A/m) 1.25 2.8 1.25 Distribution loss 2.27% 1.54%  0.69%  Table 2: Comparison of distribution loss between AC and proposed DC system in sub-main circuit  Distribution loss has decreased in DC system, and no significant amount of copper could be saved, so is the case in final circuit:  Final circuit  (20m running from distribution board to socket) System 1-phase 2-wire 220V 15A system 400Vdc 8A 2-wire system CSA (mm2) 2.5 2.5 Voltage drop (mV/A/m) 78 78 Distribution loss 2.45% loss (5.4V drop) 0.74% loss (2.97Vdrop)  Table 3: Comparison of distribution loss between AC and proposed DC system in final circuit  The overall distribution loss is found by integrating three sub-systems into one:   Efficiency (1-loss) 220Vac 400Vdc 1. Main 97.8% 97.8% 2. Sub-main 97.79% 99.31% 3. Final circuit 97.55% 99.26% Overall (1)x(2)x(3) 92.3%  (7.7% loss) 96.41% (3.59% loss) Difference 　　Δηdb 4.11% Table 4: Overall distribution loss comparison  Reduction of distribution loss is mainly contributed by the sub-main and final circuit, overall a 3% improvement can be achieved.  Efficiency improvement on converters  Both AC-DC and DC-DC systems require converters or inverters. They play a key role in determining overall efficiency of a distribution system. A simple survey of efficiency of different converters/inverters at different power ratings available in commercial market has been done. 60%65%70%75%80%85%90%95%100%10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000power ratings (W)conversion efficiency (%)(DC-DC)(AC-DC)(DC-AC) Fig. 4: Efficiency against power ratings for different converters in the commercial market  2006 2nd International Conference on Power Electronics Systems and Applications116 of 288From the graph, it is observed that: (1) both DC-DC and AC-DC converters efficiency increase with power ratings. (2) Efficiency difference between DC-DC and AC-DC converters decreases as power ratings increases  Load type and distribution  Secondly we analyze energy usage in different sectors in Hong Kong [5]: Usage Air conditioning Office equipment Lighting Others Commercial Office 47.8% 21.8% 18.9% 11.45% Others 17.91% 2.7% 11.4% 67.9% School* 30.9% NA NA NA Residential housing Public 22.85% NA 19.95% NA Private 25% NA 24.15% NA * data provided by Ma Wan Primary school  Table 5: Energy usage by different sectors in Hong Kong  It is clear that air-conditioning consumes most of the electricity in Hong Kong in various sectors. Most of the consumers in Hong Kong have been trying hard to cut down consumption from air-conditioning in various ways either by using inverter-driven split-type air conditioners (for residential consumers) or replaces window-type air-conditioners to central HVAC systems.   Nasution et al [6] stated that air-conditioning systems originally operating on a constant speed mode can be retrofitted with an inverter-driven system and the energy saving is estimated to reach 25.3%. Reviews by Mitsubishi Heavy Industries draw a similar conclusion [7] which estimated a saving of 38% can be done. It can be seen that improving air-conditioning system has big potentials in improving energy efficiency. In addition to this, one may regard air conditioners, shifting from AC-operated constant-speed mode to DC-operated inverter-driven mode, are “retrofits” since the inverters used are composed of AC-DC and DC-AC conversion. It is clear that the system can be simplified by eliminating AC-DC part if the energy source is already DC.   Similar cases happen in office equipments, computers and lighting. Currently there is a mismatch between the source and these equipments as they all consume DC. Although modern AC-DC converters attached with these equipments are all PWM-based but from Fig. 1 it is clear that DC-DC conversion has a higher efficiency.  It is interesting to understand efficiency improvement on these loads by changing the distribution system. A simple survey and analysis has been done with the information from Fig. 4   Equipment AC  network DC  network Change 　　 Inverter-driven  Air-conditioner 2kW (1) AC-DC-AC 83% x 93%=77% DC-AC 93% 16% Inverter-driven  Air-conditioner 10kW (2) AC-DC-AC 87% x 95%=83% DC-AC 95% 12% Office system equipment (3) AC-DC 78% 400VDC - ?VDC 92% 14% Lighting (4) AC-DC-AC 70% x 87%=60.9% DC-AC 87% 26% (1) typical residential air-conditioners in Hong Kong (2) typical commercial air-conditioners in Hong Kong (3) Assume a typical 300W AC-DC converter of PC  (4) typical 20W fluorescent tube in Hong Kong office  Table 6: Potential efficiency improvement of different equipment by switching from AC to DC network  Efficiency improvements on each type of equipment are now available and incorporated with the weight factors from Table 5 to estimate the final efficiency improvement  ( ) 　　 on different building sectors:   Load A/C O/E Lighting Others Weight 0.48 0.22 0.19 0.11 Office 　　 12% 14% 26% 0% Weight 0.18 0.027 0.114 0.679 Public housing 　　 12% 14% 26% 0% Weight 0.309 0.27 0.22 0.19 Schools 　　 16% 14% 26% 0% 　　Δηdb +4.11%       Type Office Residential Schools Δηdb 　 17.7% 9.49% 18.7%  Table 7: Efficiency improvement of different building sectors considering the weight of different electrical loads used  A simple case study  As mentioned earlier, a DC system provides advantages for renewable energy systems as it may simplify grid-connection issue. It is worthwhile to study the potential savings of a building with RE resources. The Ma Wan Primary School in Hong Kong is a school with a 40kW rated PV system, 33756kWh of DC electricity [8], or 8.7% of the school’s total consumption, has been generated from September 2004 to August 2005. 2006 2nd International Conference on Power Electronics Systems and Applications117 of 288An quantitative analysis has been done to see the potential savings in financial terms:  Type Consumption Improvement  A/C (2kW) 121.8 MWh 23.1MWh (16%)  O/E 106.3 18.0 (14%)  Lighting 90.5 23.5 (26%)  Others 75.1 0(1) Total per annum 393.7 64.7 MWh tariff=HKD0.964/kWh  HKD 62416 (1) assume no improvement on other loads  Table 8: electricity consumption in Ma Wan Primary School and potential improvement  16% of electricity can be saved if the generic DC distribution system replaces current 3-phase 4-wire AC system. Also, it helps boosting PV performance by improving performance of power conditioning unit, which will be a DC-DC converter instead of a grid-connected inverter:  Annual generation (DC) 33756kWh Annual generation (AC) 29637kWh DC-AC efficiency 87.8% DC-DC efficiency if DC system is used (assume 4x10kW) 95% Improvement 2430kWh  Table 9: summary of potential improvement of PV system performance  OTHER MERITS AND DRAWBACKS  From the results illustrated above, it is observed that energy efficiency can be achieved by alternating current electrical distribution systems in a building. In additional to this major advantage, other benefits should not be neglected,   Savings in material cost and capital equipment  From the analysis listed above concerning the main circuit, it is noted that potential material saving can be achieved by replacing a 4-wire system. Suppose a 2-wire DC system is chosen, then at least 50% of conductor material can be saved and thus the cost. As the DC system eliminates the AC-DC part in inverter-driven loads, there should be savings in materials in the products as no rectification or power correction front end is needed. Reduction of building distribution system cost may be achieved by simplifying the whole distribution network. However, this is only the case for new buildings. Existing buildings with AC distribution network may require high capital cost to retrofit a DC network or switch from AC to DC network. Also there may be extra cost for DC protection equipment (compared with AC of same power rating).   Power quality issues  As the distribution system is now in DC, there should be no low order harmonics in the building distribution system.  Reliability  There is potential increase of reliability of DC system over AC system. DC system can interface more easily with large-scale storage facilities such as fuel cell and other types of batteries. “Premium power”, in terms of quality and reliability, can be provided. This is also beneficial to the utilities as Asahara et al [9] pointed out that stable power supply to customers is the most basic service and maintenance works, which causes outage, are constantly required.   System simplicity with RE  Although grid-connecting a RE system to the grid is accepted worldwide, some countries and regions still have no relevant experiences or laws to encourage such installations. Utilities in these regions may be conservative to grid-connection. It is believed that a local DC distribution network can facilitate the “grid-connection” of a RE system by providing a DC interface, which may not be part of the utility network. However, this has to be further explored as this involves the arrangement of metering by the utilities.  Other potential issues  Although the proposed generic system has a similar voltage to the existing distribution system, safety issues such as insulation requirement is also a matter of concern. Contact corrosion, although outside the scope of electrical engineers, is also a major issue that should not be neglected.   CONCLUSION  In this paper, a generic DC distribution system within a building has been proposed and the possibility of replacing existing AC distribution system has been discussed. It is concluded that in general DC system can improve energy efficiencies by simplifying system structures and improving conversion efficiencies of various converters. Other potential benefits and drawbacks have also been discussed.  It has to be stressed that the proposed generic DC distribution system is not a finalized proposal as this only serves the purpose of exploring alternatives of distribution systems. For example, determining appropriate voltage level, relevant safety issues should not be neglected. The proposed system not only involves enormous changes in designing building electrical distribution system but also in designing electrical appliances. If the change really occurs, there may be 2006 2nd International Conference on Power Electronics Systems and Applications118 of 288potential chaos in transitional stage, therefore more researches should be done to investigate the practicality of this proposed system before a long-term and profound change is made.   REFERENCE  [1] Sarah Kurtz, “Synergies Connecting the Photovoltaic and Solid-State Lighting Industries”, Proceedings of NCPV and Solar Program Review Meeting 2003, pp 315-318.  [2] D.M. Larruskain, I. Zamora, A.J. Mazon, O. Abarrategui, J. Monasterio, “Transmission and Distribution Networks: AC versus DC”, 9th Spanish-Portuguese Congress on Electrical Engineering, July 2005.  [3] Linnea Brush, “Distributed Power Architecture Demand Characteristics”, Nineteenth Annual IEEE Applied Power Electronics Conference and Exposition, 2004. APEC '04. Volume 1, pp.342-345  [4] Morris Brenna, Enrico Tironi, Giovanni Ubezio, “Proposal of a Local dc Distribution Network with distributed Energy Resources”, proceedings of 2004 11th International Conference on harmonics and Quality of Power, pp.397-402  [5]  “Hong Kong Energy End-use Data 2005”, Electrical and Mechanical Services Department, Hong Kong SAR Government.  [6] Henry Nasution and Mat Nawi Wan Hassan, “Potential electricity savings by variable speed control of compressor for air conditioning systems”, Clean Technologies and Environmental Policy, Vol.8, No.2, May 2006, pp.105-111  [7] “Highly Efficient, Light, and Compact Inverter-Driven Packaged Air-Conditioner”, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Ltd., Technical Review Vol. 43, No.2, June 2006.  [8] PANG Huey, CLOSE, Josie, LAM, K.H., “Performance evaluation and comparison of a grid-connected BIPV system with different technologies”, PVSEC-15, Shanghai, China, October 2005  [9] H. Asahara, Y. Takeuchi, H. Sugihara, H. Sasaki, K. Kawahara, T. Masuda, Y. Zoka, N. Yorino, “Validation of a New Outage Work Planning Method Based on System Configuration Searching Technique for Maintaining High supply Reliability”, conference proceedings of International Conference on Electrical Engineering 2006, Korea 2006 2nd International Conference on Power Electronics Systems and Applications119 of 288

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