Takai Osamu

高井 收

Barrel

113TheUseofHaikuinTeachingEnglish(2)OsamuTAKAI1.lntroductionEnglishlearnersinJapanoftenmentionthatwhentheywriteEnglish,theydependontheirfirstlanguage,Japanese,andtranslateJapanesewords,phrases,andorganizationintoEnglish.ThisoftenblockstheflowofEnglishwritingandfrustratesthelearnersandtheteachersofEnglish.ThismayresideinthestylisticdifferencesinwritingstrategiesbetweenJapaneseandEnglish.Ineitherdeductiveorinductiveorganization,thewritersofEnglishbuilduptheirargumentswithlogicalcoherence.Ontheotherhand,Japanesewritingdependsmoreonreaders'interpretationwithrespecttocoherence(Hinds,1987;seealsoConnor,1996).AccordingtoHinds,EnglishwritingdemandstransitionalstatementswhichmaybesometimeslackinginJapanese(P.146).ThisreflectsthewritingstyleofhaikuinJapanese.Thewritermaysimplydescribethevisualimageasitiswithcondensedwordsusing17Japaneseletters.Thissubjectivedescriptiondemandsthereadertoseetheeventfromthewriter'spointofview(Morita,1998).Incontrast,thewriterofEnglishisexpectedtodeveloptheargumentsinlogicalordersuchasbuildingeachblockonebyonebyusingtransitionalstatements.Contrastivewritingstylesfirstappearedin1966withKaplan'sarticle.Hecomparedparagraphdevelopmentinexpositoryessayswrittenbythesixculturaldifferentgroupsofpeople.HediscussesthatessayswritteninEnglishfollowalineardevelopmentwhileoneswritten114 人 文 研 究 第106輯inOrientallanguagesuseanindirectapproach(Kaplan,1966).Inarecentarticleoncontrastiverhetoric,Hinds(1987)arguesaboutthedistributionofresponsibilitybetweenreadersandwriters;thatis,theamountofexpectationthewriterdemandsfromthereader.IfthereisabreakdownincommunicationinEnglish,itisbecausethewriterhasnotbeenclearenoughinhis/herwriting.Ontheotherhand,ifthesamethinghapPensinJapanese,forinstance,itisbecausethereaderhasnotexertedhim/herselfenoughtounderstand(p.143).HindsanalysesthedistributionoftheJapanesepostpositionalparticle,waasthemarkershowinganoldinformationintheexpositorywriting(pp.147-149),andillustrateshowmuchJapanesewritingdemandsonreaderstounderstand.HeconcludesthatJapaneseisareader-responsiblelanguage,whileEnglishisawriter-responsiblelanguage.ThispaperinvestigatesstrategiesoftranslationfromJapanese,thelearner'sfirstlanguage,intoEnglishbyusinghaikupoetryasateachingmateria1.Itsfocalpointishowthelearnerperceivestheprocessoftranslationwhenhe/shewritesahaikupoeminEnglish.HaikuisaformofpoetrythatJapanesepeoplehavepracticedforcenturies.Itexpressesnatureineachseasonasitstheme,reflectingaflameoftheJapanesemindineverydaylife.Itisconsideredastheshortestpoemintheworld.Withonly17Japaneseletters,thewriterisexpectedtodescribewhathe/sheseesandfeels.Thereisnotmuchexplanationonthebackgroundofthepoem.Thereaderisdemandedtofillthegapscausedbyomissionwithhis/herownexperiencesandinter-pretations.InJapanhaikuisusuallyintroducedinelementaryschool,somostpeopleinJapanknowhowtocreateahaikupoem.Takai(2001,2002)discussestheimportanceofusingstudents'owncultureinlearningaforeignlanguage,andexamineshowhaikucanbeincorporatedintotheTheUseofHaikuinTeachingEnglish(2)ヱヱ5syllabusofteachingEnglishasaforeignlanguageinJapan.2.ResearchquestionsandhypothesestobetestedThefollowingresearchquestionswereformulatedtoinvestigatestrategiesoftranslationfromJapaneseintoEnglish:(1)DoestranslationofJapanesehaikuintoEnglishmotivateJapanesestudentstowriteEnglish?(2)InlearningEnglish,doJapanesestudentsalwaysusetranslationstrategieswhenwritinghaikuinEnglishsincehaikuisregardedasapartoftheirowncultureandconstructstheirwayofthinking?Indiscussingtranslation,wecannotavoidclaimingthattheSapir-Whorfhypothesisoflinguisticrelativityhasbecomeabasicconcepttocontrastiverhetoric(Connor,1996).Differentlanguagesaffectpercep-tionandthoughtofthepeople.AccordingtoConnor(2001),thisweakversionratherthanthestrongversion(thatis,thatlanguagecontrolsperceptionandthought)hasregainedtheinterestsamongstudiesinculture.IfitistruethatlanguagesaffectperceptionandthoughtofthepeoPlewhousethem,Japaneselanguagestructurewillaffectthelearner'stranslationofhaikufromJapaneseintoEnglish.Ontheotherhand,thelearnercouldavoidthisinterferencefromJapaneselanguagestructureifhe/shewriteshaikuwithoutusingthetranslationstrategy.Baseduponthesearguments,thehypothesestobetestedinthisresearchareasfollows:1.StudentsfeelitdifficulttotranslateintoEnglishfromJapanesehaiku.2.StudentsfeelitmucheasiertomakeEnglishhaikuwithouttranslatingJapanesehaikuintoEnglish.3.StudentsbecometowriteEnglishwithoutdependingontranslation116 人 文 研 究 第106輯fromJapanese.3.MethodTheparticipantsofthisstudywere74JapaneseuniversitystudentsintwosecondyearEnglishclasses,inwhichoneclasswasofferedinthedaytime,andanotherintheeveningtimeprogram.Therewere36studentsinthedaytime,and38intheeveningtimeprogram.AboutonethirdoftheclasstimewasusedforteachinghaikuineachclasssessionforfourmonthsoftheoneyearEnglishcoursein2002.Theteachingprocedureswereasfollows.First,studentswereintroducedtowhyhaikuwasbeingusedfortheteachingmaterialinIearningEnglish.Studentswereaskedhowmuchtheyknewabouthaikuandwhethertheyhadmadeahaikupoembefore.Thus,thebasicinformationonhaikuwasintroducedandreviewedthroughdiscussionofhaikuinJapanese.Second,studentswereaskedtocompareaJapanesehaikupoemtoanEnglishpoemintheirstylesandtechniques.Sincethetopicsofthepoemsaresimilar:bothrelatingtoaflower,thefollowingpoemswerecompared:WhenIIookcarefullyIseethenazunabloomingBytheHedge!(Y∂feumirebaNazunahanasaku陥 珈々 んα%α)Basho(1644-94)TheUseof正{aikuinTeachingEnglish(2) ヱヱ7Flowerinthecranniedwall,Ipluckyououtofthecrannies;…Holdyouhere,rootandall,inrnyhand,Littleflower…butifIcouldunderstandWhatyouare,rootandallina11,IshouldknowwhatGodandmanis.Tennyson(1890-92)*Third,traditionalJapanesehaikupoemswereintroducedanddiscussed.StudentswereaskedtotrytotranslatethemintoEnglishandtocomparethemwiththegivenmodeltranslations.Studentswereencouragedtomaketheirownhaikuusingthemodeltranslationsforreference.Herearesomehaikupoemsusedinclass:FuruikeyaKawazzatobiko窺zaノ匠亥2Z4nooto(Basho)Oldpond_AfrogleapsinWater'ssound(translatedbyW.J.Higginson)Kareedani1(召㍑SZ4to〃Zαク「ikeγi/1んガnoん%76(Basho)OnabarrenbranchAravenhasperched一ヱーZ8 人 文 研 究 第106輯Autumndusk(translatedbyWJ.Higginson)Shizukesaya伽 σnishimiiruSeminokoe(Basho)Thestillness-SoakingintostonesCicada'scry(translatedbyWJ.Higginson)Fourth,studentswereaskedtomaketheirowncreativehaikuusingthreelines,butwerenotsostrictlyaskedtolimit17syllablesortoincludeaworddescribingtheseason.Herearesomeexamplesoftheirproducts:AftertherainAspiderwebwithoutitsmasterShininginthesunThesunGivingoutthebrilliantlightInthefreezingcoldIntheclearmorningThegroundmakessoundsAsIwalk_TheUseofHaikuinTeachingEnglish(2)1ヱ9SmallChristmastreeExciteslittleboy'scuriosityByitsholymagicFinally,intheendofthecourse,studentswereaskedabouttheirwritingstrategiesincludingtranslationstrategiesinthequestionnaires(seeAppendix).Theywereaskedtoratelasbeingtheleastagreeableand5asbeingthemostagreeable.4.ResultsTablelshowstheresultsofthequestionnaireregardingstudents'perceptiononwritingandtranslatingfromJapaneseintoEnglishinhaikulessons.Inthequestionnaire,questionsofQ1,Q2,Q6andQgareaskingaboutthelearners'perceptiononusingthetranslationstrategy,whilequestionsofQ3,Q4,Q5,Q7,Q8andQ10arerelatedtotheoneonusingwithoutthetranslationstrategy.InQ1,studentswereaskedwhethertranslationfromJapanesehaikuintoEnglishwaseasyornot.Iftheychose"stronglyagree,"itshowedthatthetranslationtaskdidnotbotherthem.InQ2,studentswereaskedwhetherthetranslationstrategyhelpedthemwriteEnglishhaiku.InQ6,studentswereaskedwhethertheylikedtousethetranslationstrategyfromJapaneseintoEnglish.Iftheyevaluatetranslationhighly,theywouldagreestronglytothestatement.InQ9,studentswereaskedtoevaluatethetranslationstrategywhetheritwashelpfulornot.Theref6re,Q1,Q2,Q6andQgarecategorizedintotheonegroupwherestudentsareusingthetranslationstrategytowriteEnglishhaikuinTable2.InQ3andQ4,0ntheotherhand,studentswereaskedhowimpor一ヱ20 人 文 研 究 第106輯tantitwasforgettingaclearimageofhaikupoemsintranslation.Thefocusisontheimagestudentswouldgetfromahaikupoem,andnotsomuchonthelanguage.Therefore,thisiterniscategorizedintousing"withouttranslation"inwritinghaikuinTable2.InQ5,Q8andQ10,studentswereaskedwhethertheycouldwritehaikuinEnglishwithoutusingthetranslationstrategy.InQ7,studentswereaskedwhethertheylikedtomakehaikuinEnglishwithoutusingthetranslationstrategy.InTable2,theyarecategorizedinonegroupwherestudentswriteEnglishhaikuwithouttranslatingfromJapanese.Table2showsthecomparisonbetweentwogroupsinnumbersofstudentsrespondedandinpercentageforthenumbersofstudentsre-sponded:oneiswritinghaikuwiththetranslationstrategyfromJapaneselanguage,andanotherwithoutthetranslationstrategy.Figurelshowsthepercentageforthenumbersofstudentsinthetranslationgroup,whileFigure2showstheoneinthewithout-translationgroup.Table1 Learners'perceptiononwritingIandtranslationstrategiesQ1.Q2.Q3.Q4.Q5.Q6.Q7.Q8.Q9.Q10.1Stronglydisagree13 7 0 4 24 16 12 6 9 82 24 20 0 10 8 16 9 14 21 83 15 22 7 18 12 25 21 15 25 234 10 16 10 19 4 12 24 19 15 135Stronglyag「ee12 9 57 23 26 5 8 20 4 17Tota1 74 74 74 74 74 74 74 74 74 69Note.ThetotalnumberofstudentsinQ10was69sincefivestudentsdidn'trespond.TheUseofHaikuinTeachingEnglish(2)ヱ2ヱTable2Comparisonbetweentranslationandwithouttranslationstrategies.Translation(Q1,Q2,Q6,Q9)Withouttranslation(Q3,Q4,Q5,Q7,Q8,Q10)1Stronglydisagree45 15% 54 12%2 81 28% 49 11%3 87 29% 96 22%4 53 18% 89 20%5Stronglyagree30 10% 151 35%Tota1 296 100% 439 100%Translation30　誓25名墓20覧15塁1。箋ま50Figure1???、????「?、???、〉』 ウド犠デ 穐ド 険ド 丁犠…???????」??燕'醜墾㌢ 礁 ∴:ガ∵1難 灘糞、〉???、??グボこへ あ ワ さ'霧 一 髪 ミ???『隷 潔ttt「襲1麹、?「???、????奪舞無 一、,%.、.騰 難 蕪麟_.謎1.Strongly45.StronglydisagreeagreeTranslationwithapercentageofnumbersofstudents5.AnalysisanddiscussionThefirsthypothesisconcerningstudents'perceptionontranslationfromJapanesehaikuwassupportedbytheresultsofthequestionnaire.InQIofthequestionnaire,fiftypercentofthestudents(whichcombinesthenumberofstudentswhochoselshowing"stronglydisagree"withtheonewhochose2,nextto"stronglydisagree")feltitdifficulttotranslateヱ22 人 文 研 究 第106輯Withouttranslation宏35ぢ器30うヨ25詔20むお15の日10ε5承01.Stronglydisagree2 3 4 5.StronglyagreeFigure2WithouttranslationwithapercentageofnumbersofstudentsJapanesehaikuintoEnglishwhileonlylessthan30percentofthem(whichcombinesthenumberofstudentswhochose5showing"stronglyagree"withtheonewhochose4,nextto"stronglyagree")feltitnotsodifficulttotranslate(seeTable1).HaikupoetryiswithintheJapaneseculturalframesothatstudentsmayfeeliteasiertomakehaikuinEnglishthantomakeanEnglishpoem.However,moststudentsfeeldifficultyintranslatingfromJapanesehaikuintoEnglish.Thismaybeconsideredthatthestudents'levelofJapaneselanguageisfarmorecomplexthantheirlevelofEnglishlanguage.ThereforethecomplexityofJapaneselanguagehindersthemintranslatingfromJapanesehaikuintoEnglish.ThesecondhypothesisstatingthatstudentsfeelitmucheasiertomakeEnglishhaikuwithoutthetranslationstrategywasalsosupportedbytheresultsofthequestionnaire.TheremaybemanyreasonswhystudentsfeeliteasiertomakeEnglishhaikuwithouttranslatingfromJapanese,butonethingwecanassumeisthatstudentscanfocusontheimageforhaikuanduseplainEnglishattheirownlevelofgrammarandTheUseofHaikuinTeachingEnglish(2)123vocabulary.JapanesehaikumadebysomefamoushaikupoetsaresometimeswritteninsophisticatedIanguage.Forexample,intheBasho'shaiku,``Kareedヒzni,Karaszlto〃zご〃' 'leeri,ノ1んゴ%oleure(onabarrenbranch,aravenhasperched…,autumndusk),"studentsmayfinditdifficulttotranslateKarasuto〃zα万keriintoEnglishsincethechoiceof.tenseinEnglishisdifferentfromJapaneseandtheverb,tomaminJapanesehasatleastthreedifferentsynonyms:stop,sit,andstay.WithouttranslatingdirectlyfromtheJapanesepoem,studentsmayavoidcomplexgrammati-calstructuresandvocabularyanduseasplainEnglishastheyknowattheirlevelofthelanguage.ThisfollowsoneoftheKrashen'slanguageacquisitionhypotheses(Krashen,1985):thelearnerwillacquirethelan-guagewithanaturalordersothatifhe/sheisnotreadyforthecomplex-ityofthestructurehe/shefaces,he/shemayavoidornotcomprehendit.Thethirdhypothesisconcerningstudents'perceptiononwritingEnglishwithoutusingthetranslationstrategywasalsosupportedbytheresultsofthequestionnaire.Theresultsshowthataboutahalfofthestudents(43%ofthestudents)writeEnglishwithouttranslatingfromJapanese(seeTable1).Theydon'thavetomakeoutafirstdraftofJapanesebeforewritingEnglish.Itispossibletosay,therefore,thatwritinghaikuinEnglishhelpsstudentswriteEnglishwithouttranslatingfromJapanese.However,theresultsalsoshowthattwentythreepercentofthestudentsstilldependonJapanesebeforewritingEnglish.6.ConclusionHaikuisaformofpoetrywhichhasreflectedJapanesecultureineverydaylife.Peopleareattractedbythesimplicityandharmonious124 人 文 研 究 第106輯rhythmwhichcorrespondstowaysofthinkingamongJapanese.ItisconsideredadvantageforthelearnerstolearnEnglishwithintheirownculturalframework(seeTakai,2001,2002).Sincethetopicsmaybewithintherealmoftheirownculture,studentscanactivatetheirback-groundknowledgetomakeEnglishhaiku.Students,however,feelituneasytotranslatefromJapanesehaikuwrittenbysomebodyelseintoEnglish.TheyfeelitmucheasiertornakeEnglishhaikuoutoftheimagetheycangetindailylifebypassingJaparleselanguagehelp.ThismayenhancetheirstrategytothinkinEnglishandwriteEnglishwithoutaneedofpreparingafirstdraftinJapanese.Oneoftheimportantchallengesinteachingaforeignlanguageishowtohelpstudentsbecomethinkingandwritinginthetargetlanguagewithoutarouteoftranslationfromtheirfirstlanguage.TheuseofhaikuinteachingEnglishisoneofthewaystohelpstudentsacquirethestrategytowriteEnglishwithoutdirecttranslationfromtheirfirstlanguage,Japanese.Note=*Thesepoemswerecitedfromthehand-out,"EastandWestComparisonThroughthePoems"attheworkshop,"JapaneseMindscapesandPatternsofCommunication"conductedbyMuneoYoshikawainthe2000interculturaIcommunicationsummerseminaratPacificUniversityinOregon,sponsoredbytheInterculturalCommunicationInstitute.ReferenceConnor,U.(1996).Contrastiverhetoric:cross-cultzaralasPects(ゾsecond一TheUseofHaikuinTeachingEnglish(2)125彪 ㎎ 翅g6writing.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.Connor,U.(2001).Newdirectionsincontrastiverhetoric.TESOLQuarter-1レ,36,493-510.Hinds,J.(1987).Readerversuswriterresponsibility:anewtypology,InU.Connor&R.B.Kaplan(Eds.),レVritingacrosslangzaages:analysisqプ五2text(pp.141-152).Reading,MA:Addison-Wesley.Johns,A.M.(1997).Texちrole,andcontext.●developingacademicliteracies.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.Kaplan,RB.(1966).Culturalthoughtpatternsininterculturaleducation.五anguageLearning,ヱ6.1-20.Krashen,S.(1985).The勿 勿 オhypothesis'issuesandi〃zplications.London:LongmanMorita,R.(1998).Nihon伽nohassou,nihongono勿o㎎6η 一watashinotachibagakotobawollimeptu(WaysofthinkingbyJapanesepeoPleandwaysofexpressioninJapaneselanguage),Tokyo:Chukoushinsho.Takai,0.(2001).Ibunkacornmunicationkenkyunoeigokyoikuenotorikumi(AmethodinteachingEnglishbasedoninterculturalcommunication).OtarushoufeaZ)aigafeu.万多zろunKenkzソza(Theム～eviewq/、乙iろeral∠L蟄ジ,102,59-83.Takai,0.(2002).TheuseofhaikuinteachingEnglish(1).OtaruShoufeaZ)aigaんu万ηろunKenkyu(Theゐ ～eview(ゾ五iberal∠Lrts},104,59-71.APPENDIXQuestionnaireUsethemarkcardtorespondtothefollowingstatements.Marklifyoustronglydisagreetothestatement.Marksifyoustronglyagreetothestate-ment.?????Q3.??????????????????????Q10.Ididn'tfeelmuchdifficultytotranslateJapanesehaikuintoEnglish.TranslationfromJapaneseintoEnglishhelpswhenwritingEnglishhaiku.WhentranslatingfromJapaneseintoEnglish,gettingclearimageofthehaikuisthemostimportant.WhenmakingEnglishhaiku,Imadeitoutofthehaiku'simage.WhenmakingEnglishhaiku,Ididn'thavetotranslatefromJapanese.ItisfuntotranslatefromJapanesehaikuintoEnglish.ItisfuntomakeEnglishhaiku.IhaverealizedthatwecanwritehaikuinEnglish.ThroughtheexercisesintranslationandmakingEnglishhaiku,IhavebecometofeeleasiertowriteEnglish.Now,IcanwriteEnglishwithouttranslatingfromJapanese.

The Use of Haiku in Teaching English (2)

59TheUseofHaikuinTeachingEnglish(1)OsamuTAKAI1.htroductionHaikuisaformofpoetrythatJapanesepeoplehavepracticedforcenturies.Itexpressesnatureineachseasonasitstheme,reflectingaflameoftheJapanesemindineverydaylife.Thecombinationoffiveandsevensyllablesinthe17-syllablepoemcreatesharmonioussound,whichcansoothepeople'smindswithitsrhythm.ItsoundsgoodtotheearsofJapanesepeoPleandisthereforeeasytoremember.InJapanhaikuisusuallyintroducedinelementaryschoo1,somostpeopleinJapanknowhowtocreateahaikupoem.Thus,haiku'spopularityamongmanyJapanesepeoPlehascausedittobecomeapartofJapaneseculturewhileitstillsurvivesasatypicalstyleofJapanesepoetryinliterature.Takai(2001)discussestheimportanceofusingstudents'owncultureinlearningaforeignlanguage,andexamineshowhaikucanbeincorporatedintothesyllabusofteachingEnglishasaforeignlanguageinJapan.Accordingtotheresultsofarecentsurvey(JACET,1993)onEnglisheducationinJapan,theprincipalgoaloflearningEnglishwastobeabletocommunicatewithanativespeaker;anditsabilityofcommuni-cationwasdefinedasthecompetencetouseEnglish.Katayamaetal.(1999)statethatthemodelofthetargetlanguageinJapaneseEnglisheducationhasbeenEnglishusedamongnativespeakersofEnglish.BeforeWorldWarII,BritishEnglishwasusedintheEnglishlanguagetextbookinpublicschools;afterthewar,AmericanEnglishwaschosen60 人 文 研 究 第104輯asthetextbookmode1.ThegoaloflearningEnglishhasbeensetastoultimatelybecomeanative-likespeaker・ofth6targetlanguage.Forexample,theaimoftheaudio-lingualmethodistoeliminatealltheerrorsresultingfromtheinfluenceofthefirstlanguageandtomakethelearners'targetlanguageassimilartothatofnativespeakers.Thoughwehearsomesuccessstoriesinacquiringthelanguage,therearesomedrawbacksinthisgoa1.OneofthemisthatEnglishmaybeusedonlywhenthelearnershavetocommunicatewithanativespeakerorateacherofEnglishinaclassroom.Otherwise,Japanese,thefirstIanguage,isusedas層ameansofdailycommunicationinJapan.Englishhasbeenconsideredasasubjectofstudyinschoolandwouldbeusedforaspecialoccasionsuchasinansweringteacher'squestionsorspeakingtoaforeigner.ThelearnersalwaysdependonthejudgmentsoftheteacheroranativespeakerastowhethertheirEnglishiscorrectornoteverytimetheyopentheirmouths.Theymaybefarfromachievingtheirownself-esteeminEnglish.Thereare,however,variouskindsofErlglishintheworld.Acc6rdingtoHonna(1993),morethan30millionpeopleuseEnglishastheirfirstlanguageandmorethan100millionpeopleuseitasasecondlanguage.Englishisnowconsideredasatoolforcommunicatinginter-nationa11yandhasnumerousvarieties.Honna(1993)discussesthejustifi-cationforthevarietiesofEnglishintheEnglishspeakingworld.Differ-entvarietiesofEnglisharespokenintheUnitedStates,England,andAustraliaandothervarietiesarespokeninAsia,Europe,andAfrica.Englishisusedtoexpresspeople'sthoughts,waysofthinking,andiden-tities.Itbecomesatoolofinterculturalcommunication.ItisoneofthelanguagesusedinIndia,Korea,theUnitedStates,andotherpartsoftheworld.NoonehastobecomemorelikeAmericans,theBritish,ortheTheUseofHaikuinTeachingEnglish(1)6ヱAustralians,andyetwecankeepthevarietiesofEnglishasaninterna-tionallanguage.Connor(1996)discussesthesituationofteachingEnglishintheworld,andstatesthatthemajorityoflearnersofEnglishintheworldarebeingtaughtbynon-nativeEnglishteacherssothatitisunrealistictothinktheseteachersuseonlyonesinglemodelofstandardizedEnglish,suchasAnglo-AmericanEnglish.Aslongasitisintelligible,non-nativeEnglishshouldberecognized.ItisimportanttohelpstudentsrealizeforthemselvesthatEnglishcanbeoneoftheirownIanguagestoexpresstheirfeelingsandthoughtsintheirownculturalframeworkswithoutjeopardizingtheirownidentity.TeachingthevarietiesofEnglishisnotenough.TeachinghowtouseEnglishwithinthestudents'culturalbackgroundisoneofthewaysforstudentstodevelopself-esteeminusingEnglish.Thispaperanalyzesstudents'attitudestowardtheteachingtech-niqueofusinghaikuforlearningEnglishanddiscussestheprosandconsofusinghaikupoetrytocorrelatelearners'culturalbackgroundwithlearningmaterialinanEFLsituation.2.ResearchquestionsandhypothesestobetestedThefollowingresearchquestionswereformulated=(1)DoeshaikumotivateJapanesestudentstowriteEnglishsincehaikuisregardedaspartoftheirownculture?(2)InlearningEnglish,doJapanesestudentsdevelopself-esteembyusinghaikuaslearningmateria1?Englishtextbooksareusuallywrittenwithintheculturalframe-workofthetargetlanguage,whichsometimeshampersthelearners'62 人 文 研 究 第104輯comprehensioninreadingandlistening(McDonough,1995,p.42).Itshouldbeeasierforthelearnerstounderstandthecontentifthelearningmaterialssharetheschemaofthelearners'backgroundknowledge(Johns,1997).Cummins(1983)explainsthedevelopmentalprocessoflanguageproficiencyinrelationtolearners'contextualknowledgeandcognition.Whenthelearningmaterialsarecontextuallyembedded,1earnersmayacquirethetargetlanguagewithlessdifficultythanother-wise.Krashen(1985)alsoexplainsinhisaffectivefilterhypothesisthatitbecomeseasierforlearnerstoacquirethetargetlanguagewhenthelearningmaterialsarefamiliartothelearners.Basedupontheseargu-ments,thehypothesestobetestedinthisresearchareasfollows:1.StudentsareinterestedindealingwithhaikuasamaterialforlearningEnglish.2.HaikumotivatesJapanesestudentstowriteEnglish.3.Studentsdeveloptheirself-esteeminwritinghaikuinEnglish.3.MethodTheparticipantsofthisstudywere260Japaneseuniversitystu-dentsinfiveEnglishclasses,amongwhichfourclasseswereofferedinthedaytime,andoneintheeveningtimeprogram.Inthedaytimeprogram,therewere52studentsinthesecondyearEnglish"A"class,52inthesecondyearEnglish``B"class,51inthesecondyearEnglish``C"class,and56inthefirstyearEnglishclass.Intheeveningtimeprogramwere49secondyearstudents.Aboutonethirdoftheclasstimewasusedforteachinghaikuineachclass.sessionforfourmonthsoftheoneyearEnglishcoursein2001.Theteachingprocedureswereasfollows.TheUseofHaikuinTeachingEnglish(1)63First,studentswereintroducedtowhyhaikuwasbeingusedfortheteachingmaterialinlearningEnglish.Studentswereaskedhowmuchtheyknewabouthaikuandwhethertheyhadmadeahaikupoembefore.Thus,thebasicinformationonhaikuwasintroducedandreviewedthroughdiscussionofhaikuinJapanese.Second,studentswereaskedtocompareaJapanesehaikupoemtoanEnglishpoemintheirstylesandtechniques.Sincethetopicsofthepoemsaresimilar,i.e.aflower,thefollowingpoemswerecompared:WhenIlookcarefullyIseethenazunabloomingBythe]Eledge!(YokumireろαNazunahanasaku翫 ん擁 肋 襯)Basho(1644-94)Flowerinthecranniedwal1,Ipluckyououtofthecrannies;……Holdyouhere,rootandal1,inmyhand,Littleflower……butifIcouldunderstandWhatyouare,rootandallinall,IshouldknowwhatGodandmanis.Tennyson(1890-92)*Third,traditionalJapanesehaikupoemswereintroducedanddiscussed.StudentswereaskedtotrytotranslatethemintoEnglishandtocomparethemwiththegivenmodeltranslations.Studentswβre64人 文 研 究 第104輯encouragedtbmaketheirownhaikuusingthemodeltranslationsforreference.Herearesomehaikupoemsusedinclass:砺 勉 貌 θ夕αKawa2utobikomuMdeunooto(Basho)Oldpond...AfrogleapsinWater'ssound(translatedbyW.J.Higginson)KareedaniKarasutomari●keriAkinokure(Basho)OnabarrenbranchAravenhasperched-Autumndusk(translatedbyW・J・Higginson)Shdeukesaya伽 αnishimiiruSeminoん06(Basho)Thestillness-SoakingintostonesCicada'scry(translatedbyW.J.Higginson)TheUseofHaikuinTeachingEnglish(1)65Fourth,inthefinalexaminationaquestionnaire.wasincludedaskingstudentshowmuchtheybecameinterestedinhaikulessonsineachclass.Thestudentswereaskedtoratelasbeingtheleastinterestedand5asbeingthemostinterested,andtowritethecommentsonthehaikulessons.4.ResultsTablelshowstheresultsofthequestionnaireregardingstudents'interestinhaikulessonsinEnglishclass.About68%ofthetotalstu-dentsshowedinterestinthehaikulessonsbyresponding40r5inthequestionnaire.About71%ofthefirstyearstudentsshowedsuchinter-est,whileabout65%ofthedaytimesecondyearstudentsandabout76%oftheeveningtimesecondyearstudentsshowedinterestinthem.Figurelshowstheinterestsofstudentsasawholeinthehaikulessons.Figure2showstheinterestofthestudentsineachclassinthehaikulessons.TabIe1 lnterestinhaikuIessons,EveningClassDaytimeADaytimeBDaytimeCDaytimefreshmanTotalLeastinterest12 2 1 1 2 82 6 6 7 2 5 263 4 12 14 11 9 504 19 18 22 25 28 112Mostinterest518 14 8 12 12 64Tota1 49 52 52 51 56 260Therewere243commentsregardingthehaikulessons.Among66 人 文 研 究 第104輯1nterestsonhaikulessons???????????????????????????Figure1[=]LeaStinterest1醐2口3囲4騒Mostinterest5Totallnterestofstudentsasawhole.lnterestsonhaikulessons??????↑???「?302520151050[コLeastinterestt懸2口3圃4麗Mostinterest5Evening2ndDaytime2ndDaytime2ndDaytime2ndDaytimelstyearyearAyearByearCyearFigure21nterestofstudentsineachclass.thepositiveresponses,65commentswererelatedtothestudents'self-esteem,forexample,1)"SinceIlearnedhowtomakeJapanesehaikupoemsinhighschool,Ienjoyedthislessonverymuch.IwasmotivatedtotranslatesomeofmyfavoriteJapanesehaikupoemsintoEnglish(asecondyearstudentir}theeveningclass)."TheUseofHaikuinTeachingEnglish(1)67Herearesomeotherexamples:2)"IhaveneverimaginedthatwecouldexpresshaikupoemsinEnglishbeforeItookthisclass.NowIthinkitismarveloustotranslatetheJapanesetraditionalpoemsintoEnglish,whichcombineseasternculturetowesternculture(asecondyearstudentintheeveningclass)."3)"IfounditinterestingtotranslateJapanesehaikupoemsintoEnglish.IwasmotivatedtotrytotranslatemoreJapanesepoemsintoEnglish(afirstyearstudentinadaytimeclass)."4)"Beforetakingthisclass,Ihadbelievedthathaikuwasthetradi-tionalcultureuniquetoJapan,butIwassurprisedtoknowthatitwastranslatableintoEnglishandenjoyedamongpeopleinthewesterncountries.WhenItriedtomakeoneinEnglish,Ifeltitdifficulttowriteapoemin17syllables.Butapartfromthestrictrules,wecouldmakeahaikupoemwiththeoriginalrhythrnsinEnglish(asecondyearstudentintheBclass)."5)"Ahaikupoemismadewithafewwordsandgivesenoughimagina-tiontothereaders.IfounditpossibletodothesamethinginanEnglishhaikupoem(asecondyearstudentintheAclass)."Ontheotherhand,amongthenegativeresponses,49studentsexpressedthathaikushouldbewrittenandapPreciatedinJapanese,notinanyotherlanguagesinceitisoriginatedinJapan,forexample,6)"WhentranslatedintoEnglish,ahaikupoemwouldloseitsunique.nessofJapaneseculture(asecondyearstudentintheeveningclass)."Herearesomeotherexamples:7)"WhentranslatedintoEnglish,ahaikupoemlostitsorigina1,visualimagesexpressedinJapanese.1'vegotusedtoappreciatingahaikupoeminJapanese17syllables,whichrhythmissignificantto68 人 文 研 究 第104輯Japanesepeople.However,IcouldnotfeelthesamefeelingstoanEnglishhaikupoem(asecondyearstudentintheeveningclass)."8)"Culturessuchaspoemsarearegionalproduct,whichmakestheculturesoprofoundandgenuine.TranslatingahaikupoemintoEnglishisinsensitiveandlosesitsauthenticity(afirstyearstudentinadaytimeclass)."9)"JapanesehaikuhasitsnuancewhichcannotbetranslatedintoEnglish(asecondyearstudentintheBclass)."10)"HaikushouldbewritteninJapanese.Ididn'tfeel`wabiorsaろi(whichisanaestheticsensitivitytoappreciatesimplicityinexpres-sion)'inahaikupoemwritteninEnglish(asecondyearstudentintheAclass)."5.AnalysisanddiscussionThefirsthypothesisconcerningstudents'interestinhaikuasalearningmaterialwassupportedbytheresultsofthequestionnaire.MorethanhalftherespondentsshowedinterestinthehaikupoemsforlearningEnglish.Itwasnoteworthythatagreaterpercentageofstu-dentsintheeveningclassshowedinterestthanofthoseinthedaytimeclasses.Almost80%oftheeveningclassstudentsshowedinterestinthematerial(seeTable1).Thisisperhapsbecausetheaverageageofstudentsintheeveningclasswasalittlehigherthanthatofstudentsinthedaytimeclasses.Ingeneral,haikuismorepopularamongoldergenerationsinJapan.ItisgenerallysaidamongJapanesepeoplethatyounggenerationsarelosinginterestinthetraditionalcultureinJapan.ThesecondhypothesisstatingthathaikumotivatedstudentstowriteEnglishwasnotnecessarilysupported,butsomecommentswrittenTheUseofHaikuinTeachingEnglish(1)69bythestudentsshowedhowthehaikulessonmotivatedthemtotranslatetraditionalhaikupoemsintoEnglish.ManyofthemhadexperiencewritingJapanesehaikupoemsinhighschool,whichledthestudentstobeinterestedintranslatirlgthemintoEnglish(seeex.1,2and3).TheyalsofeltitrathereasytowriteapoemwithafewwordsinthreelinesthantowriteanessayinEnglishwithmanywordsincomplexsentences(seeex.4and5).However,thereweresomenegativecommentsshowinglittlemotivationtowriteanEnglishhaikupoem(seeex.6,8and9).JapanesehaikuismorefamiliartomanystudentsthanEnglishhaikuaccordingtotheircomments(seeex.7and10).ItmusthavebeensurprisingtomanystudentswhentheywereaskedtotranslateahaikupoemintoEnglish(seeex.4).Outof243comments,114wererelatedtothestudents'self-esteem.Outofthese114comments,650fthemwerepositive,and49werenegative.MorethanhalfofthestudentscommentedthattheycouldenjoywritingahaikupoeminEnglishsincetheJapaneseversionwasalreadyfamiliartothem(seeex.1).Itispossibletosay,therefore,thatwecanseeasignthatstudentsdeveloptheirself-esteeminwritinghaikuinEnglish.Hence,thethirdhypothesisregardingthedevelopmentofstudents'self-esteeminEnglishhaikucanbesupportedbythisresearch.6.ConclusionHaikuisaformofpoetrywhichhasreflectedJapanesepeople'scloserelationtonatureineverydaylife.Peopleareattractedbythesimplicityandharmoniousrhythrnthatisembeddedinhaikupoems.Whenpresentedahaikupoemwell-knownamongJapanesepeople,stu-dentsrespondedtothetranslationexercisewithoutgreatdifficulty.One70 人 文 研 究 第104輯reasonisthe.studentscallgettheimageofwhatthepoemistryingtoconvey.Sincethetopiciswithintherealmoftheirculturalframework,studentscanactivateandusetheirbackgroundknowledgefortheircomprehensionofthepoem.Thus,dealingwithmaterialwhichcorre-spondstotheirowncultureisimportanttomaintainingself-esteeminlearningaforeignlanguage.Anotherreasonisthefactthathaikucorロprisesthreelineswith17syllables.Itisrathereasierforthelearner,especiallyabeginner,tomakeashortsentenceinEnglish.Creatingashortsentencebyusingahaikupoemisonthethresholdofwritingaparagraph.Oneoftheimportantchallengesinteachingaforeignlanguageishowtomotivatestudents,because,asproverbsays,"Youcanleadahorsetowaterbutyoucan'tmakeitdrink."Usingtheirculturalbackgroundtoactivatetheirownknowledgeisnotonlyimportanttomotivatestudentsbutalsotomaintainself-esteeminlearningaforeignlanguage.Note=*Thesepoemswerecitedfromthehand-out,"EastandWestComparisonThroughthePoems"attheworkshop,"JapaneseMindscapesandPatternsofCommunication"conductedbyMuneoYoshikawainthe2000interculturalcommullicationsummerseminaratPacificUniversityinOregon,sponsoredbytheInterculturalCommunicationInstitute.ReferenceConnor,U.(1996).ContrastiveRhetoriOc:Cross-culturalasPectsげsecond一乙α㎎ 畷g6writing'.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.Cummins,J.(1983).TheRoleofPrimaryLanguageDevelopmentinPromot-ingEducationalSuccessforLanguageMinorityStudents,InCaliforniaStateDepartmentofEducationOfficeofBilingualBiculturalEducation(ed)School一TheUseofHaikuinTeachingEnglish(1)7ZingandLangzaage/lfinorityStzadents'∠tTheoreticalFra〃zework.LosAn-geles:Evaluation,DisseminationandAssessmentCenter.Honna,N.(1993).∠1ブianoEigo(Varieties(ゾEnglish勿 、4s勿.Tokyo:KuroshioPublishingCo.JACET.(1993)。2ヱseikini〃zuketenoEigoKyouiku.Tokyo:TaishukanPublishingCo.Johns,A.M.(1997).Text,Role,andContexたDevelopingAcademicLiteracies.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversity.Press.Katayama,Y.,Endo,E.,Sasaki,S.,'&Matumura,M.(1999).ShinEigoka-kyouileu%oKenleyu.Tokyo:TaishukanPublishingCo.Krashen,S.(1985).TheInputHypothesis:IsszaesandImplicatioits.London:Longman.McDonough,S.H.(1995).StrategyandSkillinLearninga」ForeignLanguage.London:EdwardArnold.Takai,0.(2001).IbunkaColnmunicationKenkyunoEigoKyoikuenoTori-kumi(AMethodinTeachingEnglishBasedonInterculturalCommunication).OtaruShouleaDaigakulinbun1(2η々 ソza(The石～ez/iez{ノρブ 、乙iろeral∠Lrts),102,59-83.

The Use of Haiku in Teaching English (1)

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The Use of Haiku in Teaching English (1)

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