Samson, Steven Alan

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Liberty UniversityDigitalCommons@LibertyUniversityFaculty Publications and Presentations Helms School of Government2004Bernard Lewis: The Middle East Study GuideSteven Alan SamsonLiberty University, ssamson@liberty.eduFollow this and additional works at: http://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/gov_fac_pubsPart of the Other Social and Behavioral Sciences Commons, Political Science Commons, and thePublic Affairs, Public Policy and Public Administration CommonsThis Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Helms School of Government at DigitalCommons@Liberty University. It has beenaccepted for inclusion in Faculty Publications and Presentations by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@Liberty University. For moreinformation, please contact scholarlycommunication@liberty.edu.Recommended CitationSamson, Steven Alan, "Bernard Lewis: The Middle East Study Guide" (2004). Faculty Publications and Presentations. Paper 152.http://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/gov_fac_pubs/152BERNARD LEWIS: THE MIDDLE EAST STUDY GUIDE, 2004 Steven Alan Samson  CHAPTER EIGHTEEN:  FROM WAR TO WAR  Outline  A. OTTOMAN EMPIRE  (332-34)  1. Ottoman-Iranian Contest for Regional Hegemony   a. Eclipse of Both Contenders   b. Replacement by External Powers  2. Ottoman Wars against Internal Enemies   a. Nationalist Christian Movements   b. Ottoman Pashas    1) Muhammad Ali  3. Arab Leaders   a. Lebanon   b. Arabian Peninsula    1) Kuwait  4. Wahhabism   a. Abd al-Wahhab   b. Muhammad ibn Saud [ancestor of Saudi Arabia’s founder]   c. Attack Repelled by Ottomans  5. European Powers   a. Russia    1) Western Intervention  6. Eastern Question   a. European Rivalries   b. Austria, France, and Russia Blocked   c. Crimean War   d. British Diplomatic Intervention, 1878: Postponed Dissolution B. IRAN  (334-36)  1. Napoleon 2. Russian and British Expansionism [Struggle to Control Central Asia known as the “Great Game”] a. Other Powers Held Back 3. Minorities 4. Policies of the Shahs Modeled after Those of the Ottoman Sultans a. Lack of Success 5. Character of Russian and British Intervention a. Russia: Conquest and Annexation b. Britain: Economic and Diplomatic Infiltration c. First Telegraph, 1864 d. Reuter Concessions, 1872 e. Cossack Brigade f. British Oil Concession, 1901 6. Japan’s Defeat of Russia, 1905 a. Lesson 7. First Majlis, 1906 8. Anglo-Russian Entente a. Spheres of Influence C. OTTOMAN DECLINE  (337-38) 1. Constitutional Revolution of 1908   a. Free Elections and Minority Hopes  2. Young Turk Revolution   a. Bosnia, Bulgaria, and Crete  3. Italian Advance in North Africa   a. Conquest of Cyrenaica and Tripolitania [later merged as Libya]  4. Balkan Wars   a. Independence of Albania   b. Restoration of Edirne 5. Military Coup d’Etat and Alliance with Central Powers [Triple Alliance] D. FIRST WORLD WAR  (338-41)  1. Ottoman Attack on Russian Black Sea Ports a. Jihad Proclaimed by Sultan 2. Initial Successes Followed by Reverses 3. Gallipoli Campaign Thwarted 4. Most Subject Peoples Remained Loyal  a. Two Exceptions: Armenians and Arabs 5. Armenians  a. Russians Formed Four Large Volunteer Units  b. Deportation and Relocation of the Population from Eastern Anatolia  c. Appalling Hardships  d. Efforts to Curb Excesses  e. Bitterness 6. Arab Revolt  a. Sharif Husayn  b. Independence of Hijaz 1) Husayn-McMahon Correspondence [the other key documents are the Balfour Declaration and the Sykes-Picot agreement]  c. Military vs. Moral Significance  d. British Advances  e. Armistice 7. Independent Turkish Republic E. INTER-WAR PERIOD  (341-44) 1. Long Armistice or Interlude  2. Destruction of the Old Order   a. Ottoman System  3. European Great Powers  4. Imperial Rivalries: Three Phases   a. Anglo-French Domination   b. Challenges by Italy and Germany   c. Italians and Germans Eliminated But British and French Weakened  5. Postwar Experiments in Independence   a. Central Asia and Transcaucasia   b. Arab Peoples  6. Independence Crushed  7. Mandatary States   a. Mesopotamia (Iraq)    1) Faysal   b. Syria or the Levant    a. Syria and Lebanon    b. Transjordan (Jordan) and Palestine  8. Arabia   a. Wahhabism and the House of Saud  9. Rival States: Hijaz and Yemen   a. Saudi Arabia b. Yemen F. ANGLO-FRENCH DOMINATION  (344-47) 1. Ottoman Empire: Supine in Defeat  2. Occupation of Iran by Foreign Armies  3. Turkey   a. Mustafa Kemal (Atatürk)  4. Iran   a. Reza Khan (Pahlavi)  5. Survival of Independent Muslim States  6. Turkey   a. Atatürk   b. New Hope   c. Secularization  7. Indirect Imperial Rule through Arab Governments   a. Failure of the Policy   b. Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936  8. Nationalist Movements in Egypt and Iraq   a. Formal Independence b. Continuing British Presence 9. Levant States 10. Lebanon a. Historical Autonomy b. Greater Lebanon   c. Independent Smallholders c. Cultural and Religious Pluralism G. PALESTINE  (347-48)  1. Jews  2. Immigration [aliyas]  3. Zionism  4. Balfour Declaration   a. League of Nations Mandate H. FASCIST AND NAZI CHALLENGE  (348-50)  1. Failure of Liberal Institutions  2. Germany and Italy’s Seductive Alternative  3. Mufti of Jerusalem [Hajj Amin al-Husseini]  4. Rashid Ali Regime in Iraq   a. Ba’th Party [Arab Socialist Renaissance Party]  5. Egypt’s Gamal Abdul Nasser and Anwar Sadat  6. Irony of Arab Support for Germany  7. Nazi Propaganda 8. Reasons for Support of the Axis I. SECOND WORLD WAR  (350-52)  1. Transjordanian Arab Legion  2. Germans’ Orient Legions  3. Allied Use of Middle East Territories  4. Arab Disappointment with Germans  5. Allied Occupation  6. War Requests by Jewish Organizations and the Mufti’s Office  7. Little Satisfaction for Either Side  8. Arab League J. PETROLEUM AND ITS BYPRODUCTS  (352)  1. Russian Azerbaijan [capital is Baku]  2. Middle East Concessions   a. William Knox D’Arcy  3. Effects   a. Social Transformation K. WHAT THE BRITISH AND FRENCH WANTED AND WHAT THEY GOT  (353-54)  1. Strategic Motives   a. Variety of Images   b. Denying the Area to Others   c. Safeguarding of Other Possessions  2. Cultural and Religious Mission of France: Protect Christian Minorities  3. Little Expectation of Economic Gain   a. Preoccupation with Financial Cost   b. Later Emergence of Oil as a Significant Factor  4. British and French Weaknesses   a. Doubts   b. Threats by Other Hostile Forces    1) Weariness    2) Irresolution    c. Bickering 5. Ottoman Empire Had Provided Middle East with Structure and Protective Screen   a. New Systems Broke Down   b. Protection Given by European Powers Was Only against Each Other L. BALANCE SHEET  (354-56)  1. Most Positive Results: Economic and Practical   a. Prosperity and Amenities   b. New Infrastructure  2. Middle East Missed the Main Advantages  3. Acquisition of European Languages a. Access to Modern World    1) Modern Science    2) Western Culture  4. Interlude of Liberal Economy and Political Freedom   a. Subsequent Disappearance of Western-Style Institutions 5. West’s Attainment of Its Primary Strategic Goal   Review  Abd al-Wahhab and Ibn Saud Russian vs. British strategies in Iran Shahs and Sultans impact of Japan’s defeat of Russia Majlis    Young Turks Ottoman constitutional revolution Balkan wars   Sultan’s jihad persecution of Armenians moral significance of Arab Revolt Sharif Husayn imperial rivalries  Mandatary States   origin of Saudi Arabia Mustafa Kemal Atatürk  Reza Khan Pahlavi   secularization of Turkey character of Lebanon  Balfour Declaration   Mufti of Jerusalem Ba’th Party   Arab League  British and French strategic motives gains and losses   CHAPTER NINETEEN:  FROM FREEDOM TO FREEDOM  Outline  A. ARAB STATES  (357-61) 1. Postwar Instability  a. Advance of Soviet Empire 2. Independence in Middle East  a. Early States  b. New States after World War Two  c. Formation of Arab League, 1945 3. First Objective: Secure Real Independence 4. Newer States 5. Breakup of Soviet Union, 1991  a. Christian Lands: Armenia and Georgia  b. Tajikistan [Persian]  c. Turkish States of Central Asia  d. Russia 6. Conflicts  a. Saudi Arabia  b. Lebanon  c. Yemeni Republic, 1961   1) United Yemen, 1990   2) Dhofar Rebellion   3) South Yemen 7. Suppression of Dissident Minorities  a. Kurds  b. Iraqi Shi’a  c. Sudan  d. Jordan’s Palestinians   1) Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO)  e. Algeria’s Islamic Fundamentalists 8. Extraterritorial Claims [Irredentism]: Morocco, Egypt, Syria, Iraq 9. Iraqi Claim to Kuwait 10. Pan-Arabism  a. United Arab Republic, 1958-1961 11. Persistence of Post-Imperial States B. ARAB-ISRAELI WARS  (361-62)  1. Arab Opposition to Jewish Settlement   a. British Mandate and Jewish National Home in Palestine   b. Spread of Nazism   c. Mounting Tide of Jewish Refugees  2. Death and Displacement of Jews   a. Return of Displaced Persons (DPs) to Western Europe   b. Hostility to Returning DPs in Eastern Europe  3. British Dilemma   a. Attempt to Hold Back the Tide of Jewish Refugees  4. Ending of British Rule in India Removed Primary Motive for Staying   a. Mandate Returned to United Nations, 1948 C. ISRAEL AND ITS NEIGHBORHOOD  (362-66) 1. British Caretaker Government 2. Partition of Palestine 3. Arab League Opposition 4. Renewed Fighting  a. Arab Liberation Army 5. First Arab-Israeli War, 1948  a. Israel’s Unexpected Strength  b. Arab States Divide the Rest of Palestine  c. Armistice Agreements   1) Israel Not Accorded Recognition 6. Flight of Palestinian Arabs  a. Generations of Stateless Refugees in Camps  b. Jordanian Exception: Citizenship Offered to Arab Palestinians  c. Jewish Refugees from Middle East [Sephardim] 7. Series of Five Wars: 1948, 1956, 1967, 1973, 1982  a. Assigning Responsibility for Outbreak of Hostilities   1) Arab Governments: 1948, 1973   2) Israel: 1956, 1982 3) Uncertain: 1973 [Israel Launched Preemptive Attack on Gathering Arab Forces] b. Analogy to Greek Tragedy 8. Six Day War, 1967 a. [Camp David Accords, 1979]   b. Treaty with Jordan, 1994  9. West Bank and Gaza Strip   a. PLO   b. Ouster of PLO from Jordan [Black September], 1970   c. Expulsion of PLO from Lebanon, 1982  10. Intifada [“Revolution of Stones”]   a. Formal Recognition of Israel and PLO, 1993 D. CHANGING STRATEGIC SITUATION  (366-68) 1. International Context  a. Diplomatic Support of Israel, 1948-49  b. [Suez Crisis], 1956 2. Soviet Pressure against Northern Tier States: Turkey and Iran  a. Middle East Defense System  b. NATO  c. Baghdad Pact [CENTO] 3. Negative Arab Reaction a. Egypt b. Soviet Moves 4. Soviet Support of Arab Cause a. American Strategic Relationship with Israel 5. Arab-Israeli Conflict Becomes a Cold War Issue 6. Unintended Result: Role of International Agencies in Conserving Conflict E. IRAQ’S WARS  (368-71)  1. Destructiveness of the Iran-Iraq War 2. Complexity of the Issues: Personalities, Ethnic and Sectarian, Islamic Revivalism vs. Modernity, Patriotism  3. Kuwait Invasion  4. Saddam Hussein’s Miscalculations  5. End of the Cold War  6. Emerging New Pattern   a. Inter-Arab Conflict with External Involvement  7. Hussein Left in Power   a. Explanations   b. Practical Implications  8. The Lesson: Middle East Is a Freer and More Dangerous Place  9. Prospect of a Bloody Descent into Chaos   a. Negotiations between Israel and the PLO  10. Debate over the Nature of the Regime to Come   a. Collapse of British and French Models F. REVOLUTIONARY IDEOLOGIES  (371-73)  1. Ideas of the Axis Powers  2. Appeal of Ethnic Nationalism and Authoritarian Ideologies  3. Arab Turmoil   a. Syria, 1949    1) Ba’th Dictatorship after 1961   b. Assassination of Jordan’s King Abdullah, 1951   c. Egypt’s King Faruq Deposed and Republic Proclaimed, 1952-54   d. Iraq, 1958    1) Ba’th Dictatorship   e. Lebanon    1) Civil War after 1975   f. Yemen, Libya, Algeria: Revolutionary Takeovers G. DILEMMAS POSED BY THE FLOURISHING OF ISRAEL  (373-75)  1. Quick Succession of Revolutionary Regimes  2. Israel’s Initial Survival and Subsequent Victories  3. Perceptions   a. Israel Seen as a Western Bridgehead   b. Domestic Failures Highlighted    1) Problem of Western Wealth and Power and Muslim Contrast  4. Some Blame Disunity   a. Ideal of Pan-Arabism  5. Search for National Solutions   a. Deterioration of Economic Situation  6. Arab Socialism   a. Rapid Development Sought   b. Imposition of Socialism from Above  7. Failure of Arab and Marxist Socialism  8. Consequence: Destruction of Traditional Islamic Order and Western Liberties   a. Totalitarian Dictatorships H. GROWTH OF WESTERN INFLUENCE  (375-76)  1. Infrastructure  2. Political Apparatus  3. Revolution   a. Islamic Traditions   b. Forfeit of Legitimacy   c. Iranian Constitutionalists and Young Turks  4. Profounder Changes I. ISLAMIC REVOLUTION IN IRAN, 1979  (376-80)  1. Classical Revolution  2. Shift in Political Power Required to Accommodate Major Social Changes   a. Comparison with Bourbon France and Romanov Russia  3. European Models Rejected  4. Islamic Sources   a. Enemies: Infidels Abroad, Apostates at Home   b. Objective: Sweep Away Alien Influences  5. Incomplete Rejection of the West   a. First Modern Revolution of the Electronic Age   b. Summary Trials and Executions: Jacobin and Soviet Models  6. Powerful Fascination for Other Peoples   a. Shi’ites in the Region   b. Sunnis in Places Where Shi’ism Is Virtually Unknown  7. Difficult Years That Followed   a. Factional Rivalry  8. Desire to Preserve Benefits of Modernization  9. Cold War Rivalry  10. Debate over Direction   a. Islamists   b. Democratic Alternative   c. Advantage of Fundamentalists   d. Army  11. Interaction between These Elements  12. Interlude of Freedom Has Not Been Forgotten J. WESTERNIZATION  (380-87)  1. Decline of Traditional Arts   a. Miniature Painting and Calligraphy   b. Architecture   c. Exception: Sculpture Is Accepted Reluctantly  2. Literature  3. Music   a. Western Music Confined to Turkey and Israel  4. Clothing  5. Military Uniforms [Fez Was Banned]  6. Women’s Clothing  7. Position of Women   a. Abolition of Chattel Slavery   b. Polygamous Marriage Outlawed in Places   c. Demand for Female Labor    1) Economic Modernization and Mobilization for Modern War   d. Education   e. Professions   f. Militant Resistance  8. Political Emancipation of Women   a. Emancipation Not Equated with Liberalization  9. Irreversible Changes  10. Sharply Differing Reactions  11. Widening Gap between Rich and Poor   a. Public Awareness of This Gap  12. Economic Mismanagement of Autocratic Regimes   a. Rapid Population Growth   b. Squandering of Assets    1) High Cost of Security Apparatus   c. Algeria  13. Oil: A Mixed Blessing   a. Oil Revenues Strengthen Autocracy   b. Lopsided Development  14. Two Major Crises   a. Social Fallout from Economic Deprivation and Dislocation   b. Breakdown of Consensus  15. Waning Interest of Outside Powers in the Middle East [Bad News Fatigue]   a. Three Chief Concerns    1) Rich and Growing Market for Goods and Services    2) Source of Energy Needs    3) Maintenance of Some Semblance of International Law and Order  16. Mobilization of International Forces to Evict Him a. Why Hussein Was Not Allowed to Succeed b. Why His Regime Was Not Toppled  17. Middle East Options   Review  dissident minorities  extraterritorial claims  flood of Jewish refugees partition of Palestine  flight of Palestinian Arabs responsibility for wars PLO    Intifada    Baghdad Pact impact of Cold War  reasons for Iran-Iraq war revolutionary ideologies Arab turmoil   perceptions of Israel  failure of socialism Western influence  Islamic Revolution  effects of Westernization changing status of women West’s chief concerns  why Hussein was stopped 

Bernard Lewis: The Middle East Study Guide

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