Osburn, Donald D.

West, Jerry G.

English

Research Papers in Economics

SOUTHERN  JOURNAL  OF AGRICULTURAL  ECONOMICS  JULY,  1972
....  ---
QUALITY  OF SCHOOLING IN RURAL AREAS*
Jerry G. West and Donald D. Osburn
The  report  of  the  President's  Commission  on  on  simple  correlations  between  measures  of  per
Rural Poverty  stressed  the  need  for improvement  in  teacher expenditure and composite pupil achievement
rural  schools  [4] .Numerous  studies  have  pointed to  test  scores.  Test  scores  on  the  Iowa  Test  of
this  need  for  improvement  and  have  identified  ways  Educational  Development  in  North Dakota's  school
in  which rural  schools  are  inferior to urban  schools.  districts  were  found  to  be  significantly  correlated
The  current  stress  on  rural  development  and  with such expenditure  measures as instructional costs,
improved  infrastructure  in  rural  areas  further  operating  cost  less transportation,  and total cost  less
supports  the  importance  of this topic.  But what is  a  transportation  when  these  measures  were  expressed
good  measure  of  quality  when  schooling  is  being  on a per teacher basis.
considered?  Research  results from a study of Missouri  schools
Controversy  over  the  Coleman  report illustrates  raise  some  questions  about  the  validity  of
the  lack  of  agreement  among  educators  as  to  the  expenditures  per  teacher  as  a  proxy  for  measuring
proper  measures  or  standards  [1].  Although  quality.  In  this  study,  scores  on  the  Ohio  State
economists  have  typically  used  achievement  tests as  University  Psychological Tests were used as indicators
measures  of  output,  Gentis  has  raised  questions  of the  quality of schooling provided. Practically all of
concerning  the  relevance  of  relying  solely  on  the  state's  districts  which  had  high  schools  in
measures  of  cognitive  development  [2].  He  argues  1964-1965  participated  in  the  testing  program  and
that  the  effect  of  schooling  on  affective  were included in this study.
characteristics,  or those  which affect  the individual's  Expenditure  per student,  as well as  a  number  of
personality structure,  are likewise  important.  other variables, proved to be as highly correlated  with
Critics  of  the  Coleman  report  emphasized  the  the  achievement  test  scores  as  expenditures  per
need  for  further  work  on  the  nature  of  the  teacher.  (Table  1).  Other  significant  variables
educational  production  function  and  the  relative  included  assessed  valuation  per  student,  median
effectiveness  of  various  inputs  in  the  educational  education  of county  residents,  pupil density, school
process  [1].  Recent  work  in  this  area  suggests  the  size,  teacher  salary,  college  hours  per  teacher,  and
need  for  further  consideration  of both  outputs  and  classification  of school.
inputs in the production process. In addition to those
questions  raised  with  respect  to  the  nature  of the
output,  others  such  as  the  kinds  of inputs  involved,  RURAL-URBAN  DIFFERENCES
the  degree  of  utilization  of  inputs,  and  the
technology  within  which utilization  of inputs  takes
place need to be considered.  The  results  also  indicate  differences  between
rural  and urban schools. While  the simple  correlations
MEASURES  OF QUALITY  for  test scores  and  expenditure  variables were  highly
A  study  reported  in  1969  by  Stinson  and  significant  for  urban  schools,  such  was  not the  case
Krahmer  suggested  expenditure  per teacher as a good  for  rural  schools.  Achievement  test  scores  in  rural
measure  of quality  [5].  Their conclusions were based  schools  were  more  highly  associated  with  median
Jerry  G. West  is professor of agricultural  economics  and  Donald  D. Osburn is associate professor  of agricultural  education  and
agricultural economics at the University of Missouri.
*Missouri  Agr. Exp. Sta.  Journal Series No. 6299.
85TABLE I
SIMPLE CORRELATION  COEFFICIENTS  BETWEEN OHIO
PSYCHOLOGICAL  TEST SCORE AND OTHER SELECTED VARIABLES
Variable  Urban  Schools  Rural Schools
School Exp./Student  .47  .12
Assessed Valuation /Student  .34  .24
Median Educ. Level  .34  .34
Pupil Density  .24  .09
School Size  .27  .27
Teacher Salary  .57  .18
Percent of Population  -.14  -.12
Under 18
College  Hours/Teacher  .50  -.04
Expenditure/  Teacher  .36  .13
education  level  in  the  local  area,  school  size,  that  the  school  systems  were  operating  in  an
classification  of  school,  assessed  valuation  per  "optimal"  fashion when the data were  obtained. Such
student, and teacher  salary.  limitations  are  no  doubt  of  particular  importance
The  variables  related  to  achievement  test  scores  when  rural  schools  are  considered.  Unless
in  rural  schools  are  apparently  quite  diverse.  They  consolidation  moves  rapidly  enough  to  offset
include  such factors  as parental background, financial  declining  population  in  rural  areas,  the  school's
ability  of  the  district,  and  variables  associated  with  facilities  are  used  at  less  than  capacity  and  the
progress  in  consolidation,  such  as  school  size  and  teachers have classes  smaller than necessary.
classification.  Purely  monetary  expenditures  per  Results in the Missouri  study do support  the idea
student  or  per teacher would appear to be inadequate  that  a  serious  difference  in  quality  exists  between
measures of quality in rural Missouri schools.  rural  and  urban  schools.  The  average  score  on  the
Ohio  State  University  Psychological  Test  for  the
Results  from  a multiple  regression  analysis  using group of  smallest  rural schools was 43.6 compared to essentially  the  same  variables  indicated  similarurbn  sch  (  )  56  .5  in the  larger  urban  schools  (Table  II).  The relationships.  In  rural  schools,  the  valuation  per
stu  t,  e  tiol ll  of  district  resid  s, ad  average  score  for  all  urban  schools  was  15  percent student,  educational  level  of  district  residents,  and higher than for all rural schools. school  classification  were  all  found  to be  significant
factors  when  the  Ohio  Psychological  Test  Score was
used as the  dependent  variable. When both urban and
rural schools  were considered together,  the salary and
school  size variables were significant.  It is noteworthy
that expenditure per teacher was not significant.
Both  the Missouri  and  North Dakota  studies  are
subject  to the same  limitations  characteristic  of most  Implications
analyses  of economic  productivity  of schooling.  The  This  study  does  not  provide  the  final answer  as
estimated  relationships  are  really  average  production  to ways of enhancing  the quality of schooling in rural
relationships  rather  than  points  on  true  production  areas.  However,  it  does suggest  that something  more
functions.  There is very little  basis for the assumption  than  merely  increasing  expenditure  per  teacher  is
86TABLE  II
AVERAGE OHIO  STATE UNIVERSITY PSYCHOLOGICAL  TEST SCORES  FOR
SCHOOLS  OF VARIOUS  SIZES IN URBAN AND
RURAL AREAS  OF MISSOURI
Size of
_  School  Urban  Rural
0-199  ---  43.6
200 - 399  48.3  44.8
400-  599  48.0  45.5
600 -999  51.8 
52.2
1000 -and over  56.5  )
Average  50.9  44.3
required.  Although  some  of  the  variables,  such  as  number  of  college  hours  per  teacher  (r  =  -.04).
educational  level  of  district  residents,  cannot  be  Increased  expenditure  by schools for  the purpose  of
controlled,  others  are  subject  to influence  by public  purchasing  improved  quality of teaching  inputs, with
policy.  Size  and  classification  of schools  (based  on  quality  levels  reflected  by  teacher  experience  and
breadth  of  curriculum)  are  subject  to  change  and  college  hours, is apparently a highly suspect policy. If
emphasize  the  importance  of  school  consolidation  this  practice  is  questionable,  how  much  easier  it
programs.  Where  consolidation  is  not  feasible  other  would  be to spend money for other wrong things and
means  must  be  sought  to provide  rural  youth  with  not enhance the real quality of education.
educational  opportunities  comparable  to  urban  These  research  findings  highlight  the  need  for
youth.  continuous efforts to  specify the  relevant  outputs of
Recent  research  suggests  that output  or quality  the educational  system  as well  as the optimum input
of schooling  (again  in terms of cognitive  development)  levels.  Such  information  is  crucial  to good decisions
is not  significantly  affected  by teacher experience  or  with respect  to human  resource  development  in rural
hours  of  graduate  credit  [3].  This  study  likewise  areas.
found  little  relationship  between  achievement  and
REFERENCES
[1]  Bowles,  Samuel,  and  Henry  M.  Levin, "The Determinants of Scholastic Achievement-An  Appraisal of Some
Recent  Evidence,"  The Journal  of  Human Resources, 3:3-24,  1968.
[2]  Gentis,  Herbert,  "Education,  Technology,  and  the  Characteristics  of  Worker  Productivity,"  American
Economic Review,  61:266-279, May,  1971.
[3]  Hanushek,  Eric,  "Teacher Characteristics  and Gains in Student Achievement:  Estimation  Using Micro Data,"
American Economic Review,  61: 380-388, May  1971.
[4]  National Advisory Commission  on Rural Poverty,  The People Left Behind, Washington,  1967, pp. 41-57.
[5]  Stinson,  Thomas  F.,  and  Edward  F.  Krahmer,  "Local  School  Expenditures  and  Educational  Quality:  A
Correlation Analysis," American Journal  of Agricultural  Economics, 51:1553-1556,  Dec.  1969.
87

Education, Technology, and the Characteristics of Worker Productivity,&quot;

Local School Expenditures and Educational Quality: A Correlation Analysis,&quot;

National Advisory Commission on Rural Poverty, The People Left Behind,

Teacher Characteristics and Gains in Student Achievement: Estimation Using Micro Data,&quot;

The Determinants of Scholastic Achievement-An Appraisal of Some Recent Evidence,&quot;

QUALITY OF SCHOOLING IN RURAL AREAS

QUALITY OF SCHOOLING IN RURAL AREAS

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