The past decade has taught us that pathogenic microorganisms are adapting themselves to processing treatments and environmental conditions once thought to be effective in controlling their proliferation. Genetic exchange is sprouting new varieties of bacterial strains with increased abilities to cause disease. The scientific community must adopt a proactive approach, including an aggressive research agenda that seeks to determine the ecology of the food production and processing environments, as well as the basic biology of pathogenic organisms. In addition, it is crucial that we develop a well-integrated educational strategy that seeks to educate industry and consumers.Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety,

Murano, Elsa A.

English

Research Papers in Economics

Food Safety in the Twenty-First Century
Elsa A. Murano
The past decade has taught us that pathogenic microorganisms are adapting themselves to processing
treatments and environmental conditions once thought to be effective in controlling their proliferation.
Genetic exchange is sprouting new varieties of bacterial strains with increased abilities to cause disease.
The scientific community must adopt a proactive approach, including an aggressive research agenda that
seeks to determine the ecology of the food production and processing environments, as well as the basic
biology of pathogenic organisms. In addition, it is crucial that we develop a well-integrated educational
strategy that seeks to educate industry and consumers.
Historical Perspective
IIIthe past decade, food safety has become a
very important issue to consumers. They have
taken an organized stand demanding that the foods
they eat—whether produced domestically or im-
ported-be safe and wholesome. Our society has
come to realize that if we do not examine our his-
tory and learn from it, we are doomed to repeat it.
Thus, the following is a brief summary of landmark
events in the history of food safety that have cata-
pulted this issue into the national spotlight. It is in
looking at this history that we will discover what
we must do in order to improve the safety of our
food supply for the twenty-first century.
1980s: Food Safety Receives National Attention
Prior to the 1980s, outbreaks of food-borne
illness had been sporadic in nature, involving only
a few cases at a time (Cliver, 1987). This changed
in 1985 when two major outbreaks took place.
One was due to salmonellosis in Chicago, where
more than 19,000 people became ill after con-
suming contaminated pastry products (Lecos,
1986). The other involved several cases of liste-
riosis due to consumption of contaminated cheese
in California (Fleming et’ al., 1985). In this in-
stance, several miscarriages and stillbirths re-
suke~ prompting action from policymakers. The
result was that ready-to-eat products are now re-
quired by law to be devoid of any Listeri~ setting
up a “zero tolerance” policy for this pathogen
(FSIS, 1990). This requirement has affected the
way that many food processors do business as it
has led to an increase in the number of analytical
Elsa A. Murano is associate professor, Department of Animal
Science, and director, Center for Food Safety, Texas A&M
Universi~, College Station, TX.
tests that processors must run to determine
whether the pathogen is present. It has also forced
many food processors to redesign their operations
to accommodate new sanitation and production
practices.
1990s: The Decade of E. coli
Late in 1991, a major outbreak of food-borne
illness took place in the Pacific Northwest and
California (CDC, 1993). Ground beef was con-
taminated with a pathogen of which not much was
known at the time, the bacterium Escherichia coli
O157:H7. Several children died after eating un-
dercooked hamburgers served at chain stores of a
fiist-food restaurant; more than 600 became ill.
This outbreak received tremendous media atten-
tiotL with television programs aire~ newspaper
articles publishe~ and congressional beatings
held to discuss the now all-important issue of food
safety. In 1994, more than 20 people became ill
ailer consuming dry-cured salami contaminated
with the same pathoge~ pointing to ready-to-eat
foods as an important vehicle for food-borne ill-
ness (CDC, 1995).
Two years later, large outbreaks of food poi-
soning due to E. coli O157:H7 in Japan claimed
the lives of 11 people, with more than 10,000
cases reported (IDSC, 1997). The vehicle of in-
fection was traced to alfalfa sprouts, with the
Japanese government placing some of the blame
on the U.S. company that supplied the sprouts.
That same year, contaminated unpasteurized apple
juice caused one death and 49 cases of poisoning
by this organism in the United States (CDC,
1997a). The company had to answer to 16 counts
of negligence. In 1997, a meat processing com-
pany was forced to recall 25 million pounds of
ground beef, the largest food recall in U.S. his-
tory, after an outbreak of E. coli 0157:H7 foodh4urano, Elsa A. Food Safety in the Twenty-First Century 65
poisoning in Colorado that affected 20 people
(CDC, 1997%).
Also in that year, an outbreak of food-home
illness by the same organism occurred in Michi-
gan and Virginia due to consumption of contami-
nated alfalfa sprouts (CDC, 1997c), and several
thousand people became ill with the parasite Cy-
clospora due to consumption of raspberries im-
ported from Guatemala (CDC, 1997d). In addi-
tio~ several people became ill that year from
eating strawbemies contaminated with Hepatitis A
virus (CDC, 1997e). As if food safety was not
enough of a concern, in 1999, several hundred
cases were reported in what is now considered to
be the largest outbreak of E. coli 0157:H7 poi-
soning due to consumption of contaminated
chinking water in New York state (CDC, 1999a).
Recently, several outbreaks caused by a new
strain of Salmonella typhimurium, designated
DT104, have caught the attention of European and
U.S. health officials (Threlfall, Ward, and Rowe,
1997; CDC, 1997f). This organism has developed
a resistance to several antibiotic agents commonly
used in animal production and for the treatment of
infectious diseases in humans. Concern regarding
the over-use of antimicrobial by both veterinari-
ans and physicians has now prompted a move to-
ward the ban of some of these products in Europe.
Outbreaks due to Salmonella muenchen in unpas-
teurized orange juice have also taken place,
pointing to a concern that some pathogens maybe
developing resistance to acid conditions as well as
antibiotics (CDC, 1999b).
Issues Facing Food Safety
When we examine the historical overview
presented above, we conclude that there are three
basic issues, which must be addressed in the
coming century if we are to make an impact in the
improvement of food satiety: our limited knowl-
edge about food safety risks; the limited applica-
tion and availability of effective intervention
strategies; and limited educational efforts.
Limited Knowledge of Food Safep Risb
In considering the risks to food safety, we
must think in terms of the food continuw fi-om
farm to table. Although much is known regarding
how some organisms cause disease and how they
are introduced into our food supply, we do not
have a complete picture of how the practices that
we employ from production to distribution impact
the contamination of foods. For example, how do
animal husbandry practices affect colonization
with food-borne pathogens, as well as contamina-
tion of the farm environment? How do agents of
disease interact with the animal host, and how do
these interactions affect the ability of the animal
to carry and/or spread these organisms?
In additioq our knowledge of some of the
basic science behind microbial behavior is lim-
ited. For instance, how do microorganisms de-
velop resistance to treatments designed to eEmi-
nate them? What environmental factors affect the
emergence of new pathogens in nature? These and
other unanswered questions are what stand in the
way of our ability to proactively prevent fhture
outbreaks since they are at the core of our ability
to assess the risk that food production, processing,
and preparation pose to food safety.
Limited Application
ofEfective Intervention Strategies
In the past few years, several strategies have
been developed and tested for the decontamina-
tion of animal carcasses at the slaughterhouse as
well as strategies for the sanitation of fresh tits
and vegetables. These strategies include organic
acid rinses, hot water treatments, and steam pas-
teurization (Corry et al., 1995). However, the use
of several of these strategies in combination has
not been sufficiently elucidated. Moreover, the
opportunity for recontamination of foods after
treatment can occur, yet our strategies for mini-
mizing such events are limited. If we are to impact
the safety of our food supply, we need to use sev-
eral strategies throughout the food continuum. For
example, at the farm level, feeding regimens, type
of feed use~ competitive exclusion, vaccine de-
velopment, and genetic manipulation could be
employed to prevent colonization and shedding of
pathogens from the intestinal tract of animals.
In the case of tits and vegetables, practices
used on the farm can impact the level and type of
contaminant present on the crop (BeuchaL 1996).
The type and method of application of fertilizer, the
source and frequency of irrigation and genetic ma-
nipulation of surface properties could have an im-
pact on the reduction of cxmtaminants attaching to
plant tissue. In additiom the handling and storage of
produce often leads to the spread and growth of66 March 2000 Journal of Food Distribution Research
microbial contaminants. Washing regimens-as
well as the application of novel technologies such
as irradiation-must also be studied with an eye on
the costs and benefits of using such treatments.
Limited Educational Efforts
Several educational programs aimed at proc-
essors have been implemented, all based on the
Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points system.
However, these programs are limited in scope and
have been provided primarily to the meat, poultry,
and seafood industries. There is a need to develop
training programs on HACCP to fhrmers, both in
animal and plant production. For maximum im-
pact, such programs should be designed for both
English- and Spanish-speaking audiences and for
all levels of learning ability. Delivery of these
programs is of utmost importance, requiring a vast
network of educators working together. The pri-
mary problem is the lack of coordination between
educational institutions.
k addition, a concerted effort needs to be
mounted to educate all sectors (fmers, industry,
food service, and consumers) for any educational
program to be successful. Such an effort could be
in the form of assembling dedicated teams to de
liver information to speeific audiences and to spe-
cific regions. Farmers must be surveyed to deter-
mine their knowledge of food safety and of the im-
pact that their practices have on food-borne illness.
programs should be developed to prepare farmers
and ranchers to meet future challenges associated
with the introduction of the HACCP system on the
fhnn. Finally, food service and consumers need to
be includedj with adequate resources being allo-
cated to ensure the success and prompt application
of existing and new efforts.
Strategies and Solutions
Several government agencies have gone
through strategic planning exercises that have
helped them to identify the strategies to be pur-
sued in addressing the above issues. In simple
terms, we can think of it as a two-pronged ap-
proach in which research and education are linked
together to develop the best solutions.
Research
First, the microbial ecology of food-borne
pathogens needs to be fally characterized
throughout the production and processing of mus-
cle and plant foods. In order to do so, the preva-
lence of specific pathogens in specific foods needs
to be determine~ including the sources of con-
tamination from production through processing,
retail sale, and food preparation. Through epide-
miological studies, we must characterize the risk
to food safety related to specific practices on the
initial level and type of contaminants. We must
also characterize the biological mechanisms of
survival, adaptation to stress and antimicrobial,
and growth of these organisms. Advanced tech-
nologies for the rapid and sensitive isolation and
identification of food-borne pathogens need to be
developed so as to provide real-time detection.
Second, scientists must develop, test, and
implement new technologies for the decontami-
nation of a variety of foods in order to reduce the
risks posed by food-borne pathogens. Along these
lines, the effectiveness of existing strategies must
be clearly determined and the appropriate appli-
cation elucidated. Third, a thorough study and
documentation of the economic benefits of these
strategies needs to be included in order to obtain a
realistic picture of what strategies should and
should not be used in particular operations and by
particular-sized companies.
Education
An educational strategy, which is coordi-
nated throughout all segments of the food contin-
uum and involves all institutions, needs to be de-
veloped. Partnerships with appropriate agencies,
trade organizations, food industry organizations,
consumer organizations, and educational organi-
zations need to be established and/or strength-
ened. This will facilitate the dissemination of food
safety information to those members of the con-
tinuum responsible for a particular segment. Edu-
cational materials-related to the characteristics,
prevalence, symptoms of illness, risk of certain
practices, and preventive measures gained through
research efforts at each step of the food contin-
uum-need to be developed. Producers and proc-
essors should be educated through partnerships
with commodity associations. Food service should
be trained through existing vehicles and coordi-
nated through partnerships with foodservice asso-
ciations. Consumers should be made aware of safe
food handling, preparation, and storage through
televisio~ radio, public service announcements,Murano, Elsa A. Food Safety in the Twenty-First Century 67
print publications, interactive &splay/exhibit
learning devices, as well as the World Wide Web.
Conclusions
What will food safety look like in the twenty-
first century? The past few years have shown us
that microbial pathogens are very adaptable, with
newly emerging organisms challenging our long-
established concepts of safety. In additioq the cen-
tralized food distribution system and the changes in
the demographic and cultural practices of consum-
ers are ecmtributingfmors to the apparent increase
in the number of outbreaks of food-borne illness in
the United States. Increases in international fd
trade will only augment the challenges to food
safety currently f~ing us. Thus only with a proac-
tive, aggressive, and science-based approach can
we hope to have a measure of control over the fb-
ture of food safety. In this manuscrip~ we have
presented the types of programs that should be im-
plemented in order to do this. It is up to scientists,
policyrnakers, and health officials to work together
now and not delay.
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FOOD SAFETY IN THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY

FOOD SAFETY IN THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY

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