The federally funded Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) program issues redeemable food instruments (or vouchers) to low-income mothers and their small children who demonstrate nutritional need. Not all such food instruments are actually redeemed. Both ethnicity and home language preferences were found to be significantly correlated with individualsÂ’' WIC food instrument redemption likelihood. However, these correlations provided little indication that any food type (except cheese for Asians) is more or less culturally acceptable to any particular ethnic or language group. Regardless of ethnicity, persons who show English as their family language preference tend to have lower food instrument redemption rates than do those who prefer to speak any other language, at least among family members. This redemption rate disparity indicates that, to induce participants to follow dietary guidelines consistent with general public health goals, even a food assistance program, such as WIC, needs to employ some marketing techniques. Use of the English language should be a major consideration in segmenting WIC markets.Food Security and Poverty,

Matthews, James R.

English

Research Papers in Economics

An Evaluation of Ethnicity and Linguistic Backgrounds
as WIC Food Selection Determinants
James R. Matthews
The federally iimded Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) program issues redeemable food instruments (or
vouchers) to low-income mothers and their small children who demonstrate nutritional need. Not all such food
instruments are actually redeemed. Both ethnicity and home language preferences were found to be significantly
correlated with individuals’ WIC food instrument redemption likelihood, However, these correlations provided
little indication that any food type (except cheese for Asians) is more or less culturally acceptable to any
particular ethnic or language group. Regardless of ethnicity, persons who show English as their family language
preference tend to have lower food instrument redemption rates than do those who prefer to speak any other
language, at least among familymembers. This redemption rate disparity indicates that, to induce participants to
follow dietary guidelines consistent with general public health goals, even a food assistance progr~ such as
WIC, needs to employ some marketing techniques. Use of the English language should be a major consideration
in segmenting WIC markets.
Background
The Womq Infia@ and Chiklren(WIC) Supple
mental Nutrition Program provides fbod supplements
and nutritionaleducationfor women who are pregoan~
arebreastfkxiing or havejust had a baby, as well as for
childrenwho are under 6 years of age (Food Research
and ActionCenter).Fundedby the U.S. Dqxutmmt of
Agriculture(USDA), applicantsmust meet certain in-
come and health-riskcriteriato be eligiblefor this pro-
gram(OwenandOweq 1997).Basedonvariousstudi+
the USDAhas esdmatd thatewxydollarspentfm WIC
SWeS threedollars of @iiC Medicaidfinds (USGAO,
1992).Asthisprogramdevelopedin Cal.ifiomiz theInte-
grated Statewide Mormation System (ISIS) collected
extensive data on WIC participant@including i%mily
size,income,ethnicity,homelanguagepefaence, health
history,and specialnutritionneeds.WIC clinic.staiT en-
ters data directlyinto ISIS as they interviewapplicants.
ISISthencreatwor updatesallrecordsand if the appli-
cantis found eligible,printsout appropriatefood instru-
ment (orvoucher)packages.Examplesof f~ that are
providedby WIC are@ cheese,cerd peanutbutter,
beans,eggs,juices,andbabyformula WIChas contracts
with grocersto acceptthe fd instrumentsas payment
for approvedfd items.The fmd imtmments can then
be depositedas checksinbanks.Unlikefd stamp+ an
ISIS-generatedWIC food instrumentstatesthe specific
food type and amount for which it is redeemable,
James R Matthewsis ResearchAnalystII, WIC Informatio~
Researc~andEvaluationUnit,CaliforniaDepartmentof Health
Services.
serving as a permanent record of what has been pur-
chased. ISIS also tracks food instrument issuance
and redemptio~ facilitating computation of re-
demption rates.
Objectives
Inthispaper, WICdata arensed to examinehow
participants’ethnicityor home languagepref-ces cm--
relatewith theirfd redemption~ by f~ type. A
redemption mte is defined as the percentageof WIC-
issuedinstrumentsorvouchersthatareactuallyredeemed
at grocerystores.Possible implicationsof any such w
demption rate correlationswill then be dkcussd One
reason that issued fd instruments are not fidly re-
deemedis that retain fd items are not normallycon-
sumedby some cuhuralgroups served-Also, home lan-
guageprefmmce can be a measure of assimilationinto
AmericanCLdtUR thatcould a.tlkctf~ availabilityand
thereby WIC ftxd redxnption rates. Identi$ing such
redemptionpatterns would help WIC mod@ fbod in-
strument packag~ delivtay systeIx and promotion
patternsto more closelymeet its participants’needs and
preferenq thereby encmmging adherenceto fd in-
take recommendations. Obviously, these recommenda-
tionsneedto be followedfm desiredhealthbenefitsand
publiccostsavingsto beachieved
Methodology
WIC food instrument redemption rates (as
reported by ISIS) for February 1999 are shown by
ethnicity, language preference, and food type in
Table 1.Journal of Food Dishibution ResearchMatthews, James R. . . . Ethnicity and Linguistic ljackgrounds as WC Food Selection Determinants 147
The Statistical Analysis System (S2L$@) categor-
icalmodeling procedure (CATMOD) was used to
estimate the degree to which ethnicity and family
language preference might affect a WIC partici-
pant’s propensity to redeem a food instrument,
based on this ISIS data (SAS Institute, Inc., 1989).
CATMOD uses a form of linear regession
analysis that estimates parameters for categorical
dependent variables based on categorical inde-
pendent variables. This particular model was de-
signed in such a way that an estimated parameter’s
sign would indicate whether the presence of a
given ethnicity or language preference would be
associated with a greater or lesser redemption
likelihood of a food instrument. Parameters esti-
mated by CATMOD are then used as guides for
further investigation.
Observations
The parameter values that were estimated
from February 1999 California WIC food in-
strument redemption data are summarized in
Table 2. Parameters for both ethnicity and lan-
guage preference were frequently found to be
significant as determinants of food instrument
redemption likelihood.
Additionally, there does not seem to be much
sign variation between significant parameters for
ethnic groups; if one ethnic group is found less
likely than other ethnic groups to redeem a certain
food type, that ethnic group will probably be less
likely to redeem other food types as well. Pa-
rameters for African Americans, Native Ameri-
cans, and Whites tend to be negative wfile pa-
rameters for Asians and Hispanics tend to be posi-
tive. One major exception to this rule is the cheese
parameter for Asians. Figure 1 shows February
1999 California WIC food redemption rates for
various food types by participant ethnicity. A line
graph is unusual for categorical dat% but in this
case, it serves the purpose of tying ethnic group
redemption levels together to form a pattern for
comparison with other ethnic groups’ patterns.
Such patterns all show lower redemption rates for
peanut butter and eggs than for other food types,
regardless of ethnicity. If any lines on the chart in
Figure 1 cross, there would be evidence that one
ethnicity’s redemption rate varies dlferently be-
tween food types than other ethnicities ’ redemp-
tion rates, indicating a cultural difference in cer-
tain food type preferences. This situation occurred
only in the case of Asian cheese redemption.
Of all home language preferences, English is
associated with more significant negative redemp-
tion parameters than is any other language (Table
2). Across all considered food types, primarily
English-speakers have consistently lower redemp-
tion rates than limited English-speakers (Figure 2).
For the purposes of this study, a limited English-
speaker is defined as a WIC participant who iden-
tified some language other than English as hislher
primary home language; this does not mean that
s/he does not speak English at all. It probably does
mean that English is more difficult for him/her
than his/her primary home language is.
Figure 3A is the same as Figure 1, except that
the lines for Hispanics and non-Hispanic Caucasians
(whites) are darkened.The area between these dark-
ened lines shrinks considerably in Figure 3B, where
only primarily English-speaking WIC pruticipants
are counted. This situation suggests that primarily
English-speaking Hispanics have redemption pat-
terns much more like those of whites than their lim-
ited English-speaking counterparts. With the exeep-
tion of the special case for cheese,this situation ex-
ists for primarily English-speaking Asians vis-a-vis
limited English-speakingAsians.
The Asian cheese redemption deficit and the
higher redemption rates of limited English-speakers
continued in months following February 1999.
However,in May 1999,the CaliforniaWIC program
began issuing “eombination”instrurmmts,where one
instrumentcouldbe redeemed for threefood types—
~ cheese, and eggs. This combination instrument
would force a participant to take some cheese. This
might induce the Asian participant fiuniliesto eat it,
especially given their general acceptance of other
dairyproducts, suchas milk. But at presen~there is
no indication that actualAsian consumption of WIC
cheesehas changed.
Interpretation
It seems apparent that a major redemption
determinant is whether or not the WIC participant
speaks English at home. Discussion with local
(county) WC agency personnel has revealed the
following consensus as possible explanations for
the dichotomy of redemption rates between pri-
marily English-speakers and limited English-
speakers:145 March 2wUU Journal of Food Distribution Research
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at41-fA.JMatthews, James R. . . . Ethnicity and Linguistic Backgrounds as WC Food Selection Determinants 149
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Figure 1. California WC Food Instrument Redemption Rates by Ethnicity,
February 1999.
I Uu”h
95%
90%
85’%
80%
75%
70%
65%
60%
55%
50%
MILK CHEESE CEREAL FEANUT BEANS EGGS JUICE
BUTI=
~ LIMITED ENGLISH -+- W6MARILY ENGLISH
Figure 2. California WC Food Instrument Redemption Rates for
Primarily English Speakers and Limited English Speakers,
February 1999.150 March 2000
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95%
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65%
Journal of Food Distribution Research
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w
I I
MILK UiESE CEREAL PE4NUT BEANS EGGS JUICE
~ ASIAN + AFRICAN AMERICAN -+- HISPANIC ~ N4TIVEAMERICAN *WHITE
Figure 3a. California WIC Food Instrument Redemption Rates by
Ethnicity, February 1999.
I UU70
. . . ,., ,, . . . ., ..,, . . . ,.
95%
f>
al 90?40
3?
~ 85%
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MILK C!IEESE CEREAL PEANUT BEANS EGGS JUICE
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Figure 3b. California WC Food Instrument Redemption Rates by
Ethnicity, Primarily English Speakers Only, February 1999.
Primarily English-speakersmay spend more time (2)
outside of their cukural neighborhoods, for em-
ployment or other reasons, than do their limited
English-speaking counterparts. This greater mo-
bility could cause primarily English-speakers to
be away fkom their designated WIC authorized
stores, finding it convenient to buy more of their
food at other locations, even if they have to pay
for it. (In Californi~ WIC participantsmust now (3)
select one WIC authorized store location and
conduct all of their WIC transactions there--
plans have been made to change this practice in
the near fbture, allowing WIC participants to use
any authorizedWIC vendor atanytime.)
WIC food iterns are basic in nature and can re-
quire significant preparation time-especially
beans. Primarily English-speaking women may
be involved in more activities outside of their
homes than are limited English-speaking
women, and they may not have time for all of
the preparation required by WIC foods.
Primarily English-speaking persons may be
more aware of alternative food assistance pro-
grams (besides WIC) that might be available to
them; limited, recent English-speaking immi-
grants may be less aware of such alternatives.
Also, persons who have recently arrived fromMatthews, James R Etlmicity and Linguistic Backgrounds as n’IL rooa acwcuvn ueterrmrtuum LJ L . . .
(4)
(5)
(6)
countries that have little or no public assistance
programs may be more likely to take full ad-
vantage of such U.S. programs of which they
may be aware.
WIC is central to the shopping and even social
activities of certain ethnic communities to
which limited English-speakers could have
relatively strong ties.
WIC foods are selected primarily for their nu-
tritional value. As people fiorn foreign back-
grounds become assimilated into American
language and culture, they might tend to pick
up less nutrition-conscious American eating
habits, preferring non-WIC foods at times
when they have the money to pay for them.
Primarily English-speakersmay have a little more
income than do limited English-speakers.Corre-
lations between income and redemption likeli-
hood could be examined; higher incomes might
be associated with lower redemption rates, at
least within a given ethnicity.However, it should
be noted from Figure 1 that Mean Americans
and Native Americans have lower redemption
rates than whites, yet their incomes would not be
expected to be higher than whites. But A&&n
Americans and Native Americans are generally
primarily English-speakers, a situation that sup-
ports the notion of relationshipbetween language
prefmenceand redemption likelihood.
The foregoing considerations would apply to
primarily English-speaking vis-&vis limited Eng-
lish-speaking WIC participants regardless of their
ethnicity and appear to reflect a general variation in
the propensity to use WIC rather than any cultural
aversion to particular food types. The low Asian
redemption rate for cheese vis-a-vis other ethnicities
do appear to be the result of cultural aversion, given
the relatively high Asian redemption rates for other
food typfX.
Conclusions
With the exception of cheese for Asians, there
is little evidence that any food type is more or less
culturally acceptable to any peculiar ethnic or hin-
guage group. Even the Asians are not necessarily
adverse to daiy products, in general, given their
relatively high redemption rate for milk.
Additionally, universally lower redemption
rates of primarily English-speakers vis-a-vis hmited
English-speakers indicates that use of the English
language can be a market segment delimiter for low-
income consumers. Reasons for this redemption rate
dichotomy between primarily English-speakers and
limited English-speakers could be topics for fiuther
research.
Finally, the foregoing observations indicate
that low-income consumers can and do make some
food intake choices. Therefore, to encourage food
consumption patterns consistent with general public
health goals, even a food assistance program, such
as WIC, needs to employ marketing techniques.
References
Food Research and Action Center. 1991. WC: A Success SfOry,
Third Editiom p. vii.Washingto% DC.
ow~ AnitaL. and GeorgeM. Owen.1997. “Twenty Years of
WC: A Reviewof SomeEffectsof the program.”Journal of
theAmerican DieteticAssociation. 97(7, July):778–780.
S4SInstitute, Inc. 1989. SAS/STAT@ User’sGuide,Version 6,
Fourth Edition, Volume 1,pp. 405–517. Ca~, NC.
USGAO(U.S. GeneralAccountingOffice). 1992.Early Inter-
venhon: Federal Investments Like WC Can Produce
Savings, pp. 27–31.Reportto CongressionalRequesters,
Washington,DC,April.

AN EVALUATION OF ETHNICITY AND LINGUISTIC BACKGROUNDS AS WIC FOOD SELECTION DETERMINANTS

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