As the second oldest and perhaps the most renowned central bank, the Bank of England could provide some important insights into issues that may confront the Federal Reserve System in the future.Monetary policy - Great Britain ; Bank of England ; Banks and banking, Central - Great Britain

Geoffrey M. B. Tootell

English

Research Papers in Economics

Geoffrey M. B. Tootell
Vice President and Economist, Federal
Reserve Bank of Boston. The author
thanks Peter Morrow for research
assistance and Peter Flemming and
John Keyworth of the Bank of England
for their valuable comments.
geoff.tootell@bos.frb.org
The Bank of England’s
Monetary Policy
A
s the second oldest and perhaps the most renowned central bank,
the Bank of England could provide some important insights into
issues that may confront the Federal Reserve System in the future.
The next section provides a brief review of the Bank’s history, while the
second section discusses its current procedures. Abrief conclusion follows.
ABrief History of the Bank of England
The Bank of England was chartered as a joint stock company in 1694
in return for a loan of £1.2 million to the government. In addition to its
commercial activities, it was expected to handle the government’s
accounts and to assist with its funding. Although the Bank immediately
began issuing notes, not until 1709 did it achieve a virtual monopoly in
note issuance. Eventually, the Bank both provided settlement services
between banks and assumed responsibility for the stability of the banking
system as a whole by acting as the lender of last resort.
At the beginning of the nineteenth century, a rise in gold prices
sparked a serious debate over the Bank’s purpose. Participants were divid-
ed into two camps: the currency school and the banking school. The cur-
rency school argued that for currency stabilization, currency issuance
should be strictly tied to gold deposits. The banking school countered that
monetary and macro stability depended on all of the Bank’s liabilities, not
just notes. Vestiges of this debate can still be seen in the accounting struc-
ture of the Bank; by the Bank Charter Act of 1844, the Bank was, and still 62 Second Quarter 2002 New England Economic Review
is, separated into two departments with their own bal-
ance sheets. The role of the note issuance department
was to ensure that the currency was fully backed,
while the banking department was expected to carry
on as a normal commercial bank, with its own separate
balance sheet. Thus, given the responsibilities of the
Bank at the time, its assets consisted of specie, govern-
ment debt, and bank bills.
De facto, the spirit of the Act was repealed
almost immediately. A consensus soon arose that
consideration of all the Bank’s liabilities, not just
notes, was important to achieve its larger goals of
convertibility, under the gold standard, and macro
stabilization. Furthermore, concerns arose that the
Central Bank’s role as a commercial bank could inter-
fere with the attainment of its macro goals.1 From the
moment the 1844 Act was passed, the Bank was pres-
sured to unify its two departments and minimize its
commercial functions. Although the two depart-
ments have never officially been unified, toward the
end of the nineteenth century, the Bank’s commercial
function was limited.2 But, it was not until the 1920s
that the Bank finally eschewed commercial business.
Since then, the Bank’s actions have been determined
by its macro goals.
Of course, when the government ran large
deficits, the Bank’s objective of a stable currency came
into conflict with its obligations to assist with the gov-
ernment’s funding. The Bank often resolved that con-
flict by temporarily suspending convertibility, as it did
during the Napoleonic Wars and the world wars.
Britain went off the Gold Standard in 1931, and
the mission of the Bank was altered. Under the Bank of
England Act of 1946, complete ownership of the Bank
passed to the government. The goals of the central
bank again changed. Convertibility, however, still
played an important role, as Bretton Woods forced the
government to conduct policy consistent with a fixed
dollar/pound exchange rate. Yet, the goal of maintain-
ing full employment now moved into the foreground.
To help attain these multiple goals, the Bank relied
heavily on quantity controls on the creation of credit.3
When the two goals appeared to be hopelessly in con-
flict, the exchange rate was altered.
Movements toward central bank independence
eventually led to the 1998 Bank of England Act. The
Act gave the Bank freedom in setting the monetary
instrument, the interest rate. However, the Act also
codified the Bank’s goals. The government set an infla-
tion target for the Bank of around 2 percent and
required the Bank to “support the government’s eco-
nomic policy.” As a byproduct of this new instrument
independence, government debt management was
moved from the Bank to the Treasury. 
The Current Procedures 
Open Market Operations—How?
Although giving the Bank of England instrument
independence was a significant change, the instru-
ment itself has remained relatively constant over time.
The Bank currently targets the interest rate at a maturi-
ty of about 14 days. The mechanism it uses to attain
this target is quite simple. Since reserve requirements
are essentially nonexistent,4 and all accounts must set-
tle at the end of each day, the Bank of England creates
a shortage of reserves in the market so that the system
as a whole must come to the Bank for liquidity. The
Bank merely sets the rate at which it provides this liq-
uidity to the market.
The Bank of England intervenes in the market
several times daily. In the morning, the Bank informs
its counterparties of its estimate of the size of the day’s
shortfall in liquidity.5 At this point, the Bank states its
willingness to buy securities equal in value to that
amount at the target interest rate. The bank then
receives offers for quantities from its interested coun-
terparties. All eligible counterparties and all eligible
assets are welcome.6 If demand for liquidity is higher
than the Bank had anticipated, it prorates the bids
across the different counterparties according to the
size of their bids and the different assets offered. The
Bank usually repeats this exercise one or two more
times during the day as it reestimates the shortfall. Of
course, if there is a surplus of liquidity at the begin-
ning of the day, the Bank drains liquidity via reverse
repo (from the market’s perspective) using DBV
(delivery by value) gilts.
1 Fears became more acute that commercial self-interest,
specifically the Bank’s competition with other banks, might interfere
with both its macro role and its role as the lender of last resort.
2 The Bank was treated like a public utility. The shareholders
were given a fixed return, no matter how the commercial part of the
Bank performed.
3 The use of controls faded after the collapse of the Bretton
Woods system, although the “corset” was temporarily installed in
the mid- to late 1970s.
4 The Bank can call for “Special Deposits” if needed, but that
instrument has not been used since 1979.
5 The counterparties were historically the big discount houses
involved in settlement, but the number of eligible institutions
increased in the 1990s to ensure a more diverse distribution of the
liquidity.
6 Occasionally the Bank will state a preference for a certain
security at the initial invitation.Second Quarter 2002 New England Economic Review 63
By 4:20 p.m., a late overnight repo facility, which
may be charged at a penalty rate, addresses any
remaining liquidity shortage. Note that the Bank does
not have a Lombard/discount window that banks can
access at their discretion.
Open Market Operations—What?
Before the mid-1990s, open-market operations
were almost exclusively conducted as outright pur-
chases or sales of securities. The repo market was too
small to conduct monetary policy. From the beginning,
the assets accepted by the Bank of England in these
transactions were very short-term Treasuries, local
authority bills, and bank bills backed by a self-liqui-
dating transaction (“real bills”). At least in the twenti-
eth century, Treasuries were a major share of these
assets. The exact role of bank bills and specie in the
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries would be interest-
ing to study if the data were more readily available.
Note that gilts, the longer-term government securities,
were not, as a rule, purchased. 
In the early 1990s, concerns arose that the short-
term paper market, particularly Treasuries, was not
growing quickly enough to satisfy the needs of the
financial system. The first row of Table 1 highlights
the extent of this problem, as the Bank’s share of the
market in its usable assets reached 13 percent by
1990.
The Bank of England responded by expanding the
acceptable asset pool in several steps. First, the value
of eligible assets increased significantly in March 1997
when the repo market became sufficiently deep to
allow open-market operations in these assets. In fact,
repos, usually backed by long-term gilts and averag-
ing about 14 days in maturity, have become the most
frequent security used by the Bank; outright purchases
now represent a far smaller percentage of current
operations.
Second, beginning in October 1998, some sterling-
denominated foreign government and major interna-
tional institution debt, issued in the United Kingdom
(CREST), the “bulldogs,” were accepted as collateral.
As Table 1 shows, this had a minimal effect on the col-
lateral base.
Third, in June of 1999, the collateral pool was fur-
ther expanded to include sterling-denominated bonds
of European government and international agencies
that were accepted in Euroclear/Cedel, and similar
euro-denominated securities eligible in European
Central Bank (ECB) monetary policy operations. In
August of 1999, euro-denominated debt of European
governments and central banks, where the central
bank in the foreign country acts as the Bank’s custo-
dian under the Correspondent Central Bank Model
and where the assets are eligible for open market
operations for the ECB, were added to the list of
assets acceptable as collateral. These last assets
account for most of the £2 trillion increase in the asset
base in 1999.
Finally, in March of 2000, restrictions on the bank
bills accepted were liberalized. Traditionally, the Bank
only accepted bank bills backed by a self-liquidating
transaction (“real bills”). Acceptable short-term bills
now can be backed solely by the general creditworthi-
ness of the borrower.
The recent expansion of acceptable assets could
also have been motivated by concerns other than shal-
lowness in the market. Although the debt-to-GDP
ratio in the United Kingdom remains around levels
comparable to those in the United States, it is not pro-
jected to decline at the pace forecasted in this country.7
Instead, changes in the financial institutions in Europe
forced their competitors in London, that is, the Bank of
England’s counterparties, to deal in assets more con-
sistent with the euro area as a whole. 
Open Market Operations—Asymmetries
The assets the Bank accepts as collateral differ
from those it accepts for outright purchase. The
securities offered for outright sale to the Bank must
Table 1
Collateral Eligible in Open-Market
Operations
Percent held by
End of Year Billions of pounds Bank of England
1990 37 13
1995 30 11
1996 34 14
1997 320 2
1998 327 3
1999 2,325 1
Source: Reprinted from “Sterling Wholesale Markets: Develop-
ments in 1999,” Bank of England Quarterly Bulletin, February
2000.
7 In fact, at the Bank of England’s 1998 conference on “Govern-
ment Debt Structure and Monetary Conditions,” staff raised tradi-
tional concerns of too much public debt forcing monetization; they
did not address the repercussions from a shortfall of public sector
debt.64 Second Quarter 2002 New England Economic Review
be sterling-denominated, which rules out the euro-
denominated foreign debt accepted as collateral for
repos.8 Furthermore, the debt must be of a maturity
called for in the invited bids; it cannot have a matu-
rity longer than the longest invited repo. The matu-
rity represents an asymmetry because the repos can
be backed by long-term collateral, but no outright
purchase of this collateral is allowed.
One possible reason for these two restrictions
could be risk minimization. Arepo has a known resale
value as of the time of its purchase. The value of the
other securities can fluctuate, even if they are held
only briefly. The Bank wants the repo seller to bear any
foreign exchange or interest rate risk on the foreign-
denominated or long-term asset. The motivation for
this degree of risk minimization is, however, uncer-
tain. Finally, there are no preset rules for collateral for
loans emanating from the Bank’s function of lender of
last resort.
Conclusion
TheBankofEnglandisnotworriedaboutashortfall
of collateral. In the early 1990s, the Bank’s emphasis on
short-term securities caused some concern about asset
availability. The United Kingdom solved this apparent
problem by opening up a repo market with long-term
giltsandeuro-assetcollateralthatwassignificantlymore
far-ranging than the outright purchases the Bank makes.
How much of the expansion in assets was needed
because of the shortfall in Treasuries and bank bills, and
howmuchwaspoliticallymotivatedbythepossiblegoal
of future entry into the euro area or a desire to maintain
London as a financial center in Europe, is unclear.
8 The foreign exchange stabilization fund was moved to the
Treasury with the Bank of England Act of 1998, so the Bank current-
ly owns some exchange assets. These are mostly euro-settlement
balances, with some dollar swaps.

The Bank of England's monetary policy

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