Acar Kitaoka Adam

Kobe City University of Foreign Studies Institutional Repository

神戸市外国語大学 学術情報リポジトリLanguage exchange encounters andcross-cultural uncertainty management著者 Acar Kitaoka Adam雑誌名 神戸外大論叢巻 61号 6ページ 53-60発行年 2010-11-30URL http://id.nii.ac.jp/1085/00000415/Creative Commons : 表示 - 非営利 - 改変禁止http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/deed.ja（ 53 ）Language Exchange Encountersand Cross-CulturalUncertainty ManagementAdam Acar Kitaoka　BackgroundLanguage exchange, a.k.a. tandem language learning, can be de-fined as “language-based communication between two learners who are native speakers of different languages and who are learning each other’s language as a L2” (Cziko, 2004). The history of face to face language exchange goes back to 1968 when French-German youth exchange pro-gram has first started (Cziko, 2004). In 1979, the Spanish-German Tan-dem Partnership was established later transforming into TANDEM net-works in Europe that involved 16 different European countries. After the mass adoption of the internet, all of these networks also provided tandem language services on the web serving as a model for the new commercial and non-profit language exchange web sites. Today, the key word “language exchange” returns with more than 4 million hits on Google and there are more than two dozen online language exchange services open to public (e. g., mylanguageexchanage. com., conversation-exchange.com, italki. com, languageexchanges. com, etandem.net. etc.)Despite the wide popularity of the language exchange portals on the internet, so far, no study has ever analyzed the nature of face to face language exchange meetings that take place after online interactions. Moreover, there’s no established view about what constitutes a satisfac-tory first time language exchange meeting and an ideal language ex-change partner. By drawing on Gudykunst’s widely accepted uncertain-ty and ambiguity management theory from the cross-cultural communi-（ 54 ）cation discipline, this paper is aiming to explain the outcome of first time language exchange meetings based on the personal traits of the involved parties and the nature of the communication process. The re-sults would be of specific interest to the intercultural communication scholars who are studying the relationship between language, context and communicating with strangers.Communicative Differences between Japanese and For-eignersAfter reviewing dozens of studies covering on communication pat-terns in Japan and North America, Gudykunst and Nishida concluded that, despite some similarities, the communication process is fundamen-tally different in both sides of the Pacific. The authors focused on lan-guage, culture and communication dynamics and explained the language differences as follows. Japanese North AmericansDirectness Indirect (Cautiousness and in-directness needed for harmony, synthetic thinking (focusing on the whole) vs analytic thinking)Direct (subject Centered, ana-lytic thinking (focusing on parts))In-group/Out-group ConversationHonorifics and different words used for outsiders. Honne vs tatemae, uchi vs. sotoNo distinctive comm. between out-group membersPurpose Information Transmission (per-suasiveness should always be avoided)Persuasion (language can be used to convince others, threats are not unusual)Topic Management and Turn takingTake turns evenly, use aizuchi. Conversation starter does most of the talk, questions and com-ments instead of back chan-nelingSilence Presence of seniors, outsiders, different genders make it hard to talk. Silence has different meanings.Words are used to control situa-tion, silence is not likedCompetence Low confidence in English skills, purpose is instrumental (to get a job) Fluent Japanese speakers are uncommon and usually foreign-ers are not expected to be profi-cient in Japanese (the law of inverse returns)Summarized from Gudykunst & Nishida, 1994（ 55 ）Theoretical FrameworkA typical language exchange involves two strangers from different cultures meeting for the first time in a host country that might cause some communication problems. Therefore, Gudykunst’s (1985) cross-cul-tural anxiety/uncertainty management theory which relates to interac-tions with strangers can explain the consequence of the initial language exchange meetings. First introduced by Berger and Calabresse (1975) and then developed by Gudykunst (1985), this theory provides valuable insights into communication between in- and out-group members by pre-dicting strangers’ behavior and reducing miscommunication. The axioms of the theory can be summarized into one sentence as liking among strangers is positively affected by nonverbal communication, intimacy, shared networks, self disclosure and similarity while negatively influ-enced by dissimilarity and interrogation. Gudykunst and his colleagues successfully applied the theory to Japanese and Caucasian relationships in Hawaii (1987) and in-out group interactions in Japan and the USA (1987). The authors noted that the theory mostly holds true but cultural factors (such as masculinity and collectivism) and ethno-linguistic char-acteristics also contribute to the relationships between strangers.MethodologyAs a first step, popular language exchange web sites were identified according to the number of daily visits on Alexa.com. Only the top two websites (mylanguageexchange.com and conversationexchange.com) were selected to solicit participation in the study. Invitations were sent out with a link to the online survey to 500 members on mylanguageex-change.com and 100 members on conversationexchnage.com (via conven-ience sampling: the most recent members who logged in last 30 days). Additionally, the information about this study was posted on the page of Mixi’s language exchange group. There was no incentive to participate in the survey and the response rate was about 10%. The data was collected in November, 2009 via a password protected online survey website. The questionnaire was in Japanese and all of the （ 56 ）participants listed Japanese as their mother tongue.  There were a total of 64 participants residing in 6 different countries (Japan, 39; United States, 12; Canada, 6; United Kingdom, 3; Australia, 3; New Zealand, 1). The age of the participants ranged between 18 and 65 and the major-ity were females (85%). Although this can be seen as gender bias in data collection, it was observed that most Japanese who created online pro-files to find English speaking language exchange partners were females.Measurements for similarity, interrogation, nonverbal communica-tion and ethnic identification were borrowed from Gudykunst’s past studies (1985, 1987a, 1987b). FindingsA series of confirmatory factor analyses and structural equation modeling (Arbuckle, 2006) were conducted to test the relationship be-tween liking and previously identified independent variables namely similarity, effective non-verbal communication, interrogation and ethnic identification. Although the model was somewhat significant (acceptable RMSEA, IFI values) the path coefficients for ethnic identification and similarity seemed to be insignificant. Additionally, readers should not that 35 is a very low sample size for SEM or any multivariate analysis with several independent variables. Hence, these results should be taken very cautiously.Table I: Model Fit モ　 デ 　ル IFI RMSEA NFI CFI CMIN/DFモデル番号１ .910 .077 .731 .889 1.371（ 57 ）Table II: Path Coefficients推定値 標準誤差 検定統計量 確率 ラベルvar530var510var558var559var560var561var651var652var562SatisfactionSatisfactionSatisfactionSatisfaction←←←←←←←←←←←←←SimilaritySimilarityInterrogationInterrogationNonverbalNonverbalE. IdentificationE. IdentificationNonverbalSimilarityInterrogationNonverbalE. Identification1.000 .4561.0003.1861.000 .7361.0001.6891.012 .715-.3621.555-.178 .5343.343 .2282.828 .203 .900 .196 .343 .257 .854 .9533.225 .5974.976 .795-1.8484.537-.693.393.341.001.550***.427.065***.488Figure I: Final Structural Equation Model (CMIN/DF=1.37, RMSEA=.077)（ 58 ）Results and ConclusionsThis study has investigated the impressions formed during first-time language encounters between Japanese and English speakers. The data provided a clear support to Gudykunst’s cross-cultural uncertainty management theory which predicts that similarity and effective nonver-bal communication positively impact liking of strangers whereas inter-rogation and strong ethnic identification hinder meaningful relationship development in the process. Additionally, it was found that the per-ceived “respect” is the best predictor of initial satisfaction with a lan-guage exchange partner. Some other notable findings to emerge from this study were the importance nonverbal communication and attractiveness. According to our model, nonverbal communication –smiling, eye contact and use of gestures– had the highest path coefficient leading to satisfaction way higher than the effects of similarity and openness to different cultures. In the same vein, it was found that the attractiveness of the language partner is as important as his/her verbal communication skills. These findings suggest that body language can play a crucial role during con-versations with strangers, which is often underestimated or goes unno-ticed by EFL learners. DiscussionsPeople who study foreign languages by and large focus on grammar or vocabulary ignoring pragmatic implications of the language. Similar-ly, language teachers also tend to overlook cultural and contextual fac-tors when preparing class materials. However, this study clearly demon-strates that nonverbal aspects of EFL conversations could be a deter-mining factor when it comes to relationship building with foreigners. Educating young learners about the importance of nonverbal communi-cation, especially smiling, eye contact, hand gestures and mutual re-spect would greatly help them gain cross-cultural competence.  （ 59 ）ReferencesArbuckle, J.L. (2006). Amos 7.0 User’s Guide, Chicago, IL: SPSS Inc.Cziko, G. A. (2004). Electronic tandem language learning (eTandem): A third ap-proach to second language learning for the 21st century. CALICO Journal, 22, 25-39.Berger, C. R. & Calabrese, R. (1975). Some explorations in initial interactions and beyond: Toward a developmental theory of interpersonal communication. Human Communication Research, 1, 99-112.Gudykunst, W. B. (1985) A model of uncertainty reduction in intercultural encoun-ters. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 4, 79-98.Gudykunst, W. B., Lori L. S. & Sonoda, K. T. (1987). Uncertainty reduction in Japanese-American/ Caucasian relationships in Hawaii. Western Journal of Speech Communication. 51, 256-73.Gudykunst, W. B., Yoon, Y., & Nishida, T. (1987). The influence of individualism-collectivism on perceptions of communication in in-group and out-group relationships. Communication Monographs, 54, 295-306.Gudykunst, W.B. & Nishida, T. (1994). Bridging Japanese/North American Differ-ences. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.（ 60 ）Appendix I Correlations between “Overall you liked this person” and Personality items Correlation CoefficientSignificanceHe/She was respectful to you He/She was an attractive personBoth of you smiled most of the timeLooked at each other in the eye most of the timeHe/She often smiled during the conversation He/She seemed like a psychologically normal personHe/She seemed like having an extrovert personalityHe/She seemed like a positive thinking person This person mostly understood how you felt at that timeThis person mostly understood the meaning of what you were sayingYou mostly understood what this person was sayingThis person asked you specific questions about your personalityHe/She had similar interests and hobbies to yours He/She seemed like capable of answering all of your questions You mostly understood what this person felt at that timeBoth of you used body and hand gestures most of the timeThis person asked you specific questions about your feelings/emotionsDid you meet in Japan or overseasHe/She had different purposes except language exchange He/She was boring0.750.730.720.630.620.620.540.530.470.460.400.360.340.340.280.210.200.12-0.05-0.29p>.05p>.05p>.05p>.05p>.05p>.05p>.05p>.05p>.05p>.05p>.05p>.05p>.05p>.05p>.05p>.05p>.05p>.05p>.05p>.05N=35

Language exchange encounters and cross-cultural uncertainty management

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Language exchange encounters and cross-cultural uncertainty management

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