Participants were presented with one of ten vignettes describing a male or female child character who varied in gender-related interests and behaviors from strongly masculine to strongly feminine.
Participants thought masculine and feminine children would be masculine and feminine in adulthood, respectively, and that masculinity would be related to externalizing and femininity to internalizing. They thought that gender-nonconforming children would experience more pressure to change their behavior, and that they would be less likely to be exclusively heterosexual in adulthood

Blakemore, Judith Elaine

Thomas, Rachel N

Opus: Research and Creativity at IPFW

Indiana University – Purdue University Fort Wayne
Opus: Research & Creativity at IPFW
Psychology Faculty Presentations Department of Psychology
4-19-2012
Expected correlates and outcomes of childhood
gender nonconformity
Rachel N. Thomas
Bethel College - Mishawaka, rnkiser@gmail.com
Judith Elaine Blakemore
Indiana University - Purdue University Fort Wayne, blakemor@ipfw.edu
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Opus Citation
Rachel N. Thomas and Judith Elaine Blakemore (2012). Expected correlates and outcomes of childhood gender nonconformity. Presented
at Gender Development Research Conference, San Francisco.
http://opus.ipfw.edu/psych_facpres/99
Expected Correlates and Outcomes of 
Childhood Gender Nonconformity
Rachel N. Thomas, Bethel College, and
Judith E. Owen Blakemore, Indiana University - Purdue University, Fort Wayne 
Abstract Method
Participants were presented with 
one of ten vignettes describing a 
male or female child character 
who varied in gender related
Participants. 518 (337 F; 181 M) 
undergraduates completed an 
online survey about one of the 
vignettes described below.
Results
Dependent measures were analyzed 
with 2 (child character sex) X 5 (child 
gender-role interests and behavior) 
X 2 (participant sex) ANOVAs. When 
2
3
4
5
re
di
ct
ed
 S
ex
ua
l A
ttr
ac
tio
n 
fr
om
 S
am
e-
Se
x 
(1
) t
o 
O
th
er
 S
ex
 (5
)
Predicted Sexual Attraction
Boys
Girls
   -  
interests and behaviors from 
strongly masculine to strongly 
feminine.
Participants thought masculine 
and feminine children would be 
masculine and feminine in 
adulthood, respectively, and that 
masculinity would be related to 
externalizing and femininity to 
i t li i Th th ht th t
Vignettes. There were 10 
vignettes, in which a child named 
either Michael or Emily was 
described with characteristics, 
behaviors, and interests 
previously rated as being only for 
boys to only for girls (Blakemore 
& Centers, 2005; Liben & Bigler, 
2002). The boys’ vignettes are 
b l th i l ’ id ti l
necessary, post hoc tests were 
conducted using Scheffé. 
2
3
4
5
6
ng
s 
of
 M
as
cu
lin
ity
 (1
) -
Fe
m
in
in
ity
 (6
) o
f t
he
 C
hi
ld
re
n
Masculinity-Femininity of the Child Characters
Boys
Girls
1
SM MM N MF SF
Pr
Child Interests and Behavior Ranging from Strongly Masculine (SM) to Strongly 
Feminine (SF)
Main effect of child sex  (p = .007), child interests (p < .001), and the interaction between child sex 
and interests  (p < .001). SF > all others; SF-b > MF-b = SM
20
40
60
80
100
rc
en
t P
re
di
ct
ed
  C
hi
ld
 W
ou
ld
 b
e 
H
et
er
os
ex
ua
l i
n 
A
du
lth
oo
d
Predicted Sexual Orientation
Boys
Girls
Introduction
n erna z ng. ey oug  a  
gender-nonconforming children 
would experience more pressure 
to change their behavior, and that 
they would be less likely to be 
exclusively heterosexual in 
adulthood.
e ow; e g r s  were en ca  
except for the name and 
pronouns.
Strongly Masculine
Michael is a 6-year-old first grader. Michael is 
very brave, but sometimes he can be 
aggressive. He has many friends, all of whom 
are other boys. He enjoys many activities with 
his friends, especially building with tools and 
building forts. Michael’s favorite toys are his G.I. 
Joes and his tool kit. When he grows up, he 
would like to be a firefighter. 
1
SM MM N MF SFR
at
in
Child Interests and Behavior Ranging from Strongly Masculine (SM) to Strongly 
Feminine (SF)
Main effects of child sex, and child interests, and the interaction were significant, p < .001 in all cases. 
SF > MF > N > MM > SM.  SF-g = SF-b = MF-g > MF-b = N-g
2
3
4
5
6
R
at
in
gs
 o
f M
as
cu
lin
ity
 (1
) -
Fe
m
in
in
ity
 (6
) a
s 
A
du
lts
Predicted Masculinity-Femininity in Adulthood
Men
Women
0
SM MM N MF SF
Pe
r
Child Interests and Behavior Ranging from Strongly Masculine (SM) to Strongly 
Feminine (SF)
Analyzed with logistic regression. Child sex, child behavior, and interaction significant, p ≤ .001. 
Greater gender nonconformity associated with lesser perceived 
Impact of AWS and Participant Sex
For the most part, the responses of 
men and women were similar. 
Participant sex was not a significant 
main effect in any analysis, and there 
was one 3-way interaction involving it 
(childhood internalizing) Gender
Conclusions
Children who are gender 
nonconforming, especially boys, 
often have poorer relationships 
with parents and peers, 
attachment difficulties, more 
anxiety, and report pressure to 
change in line with gender-
normative behavior (Alanko et al., 
2009; Carver, Yunger, & Perry, 
Participants found our descriptions to 
be associated with masculinity and 
Moderately Masculine
Michael is a 6-year-old first grader. Michael is 
very independent, but sometimes he can be 
loud. He has many friends, most of whom are 
other boys, but some of whom are girls. He 
enjoys many activities with his friends, 
especially playing dodge ball and watching 
sports on television. Michael’s favorite toys are 
his Lincoln Logs and his dinosaurs. When he 
grows up, he would like to work with computers.
Neutral
Michael is a 6-year old first grader. Michael is 
very curious, but sometimes he can be 
2
3
4
5
es
su
re
 to
 C
ha
ng
e 
fr
om
 N
ot
-a
t-a
ll 
(1
) t
o 
Ex
tr
em
el
y 
(5
)
Expected Experience of Being Pressured to Change
Boys
Girls
1
SM MM N MF SF
Child Interests and Behavior Ranging from Strongly Masculine (SM) to Strongly 
Feminine (SF)
Main effects of child sex and child interests were significant, p < .001 in both cases.  SF = MF > N > 
MM = SM.
 . -
related attitudes, as measured by the 
AWS, were not related to any 
outcomes.
2003). Gender nonconformity in 
childhood is also associated with 
greater probability of a non-
heterosexual orientation in 
adulthood.
If parents, other adults, and peers 
reject such children, it’s not 
surprising that attachment 
difficulties, anxiety, or other 
problems of adjustment would be
femininity as expected. They 
expected masculinity and femininity 
to be reasonably stable to adulthood.
Participants thought that gender-
nonconforming children would 
experience more pressure to change 
their behavior than would gender-
conforming children.
Participants thought that masculine
secretive. He has many friends, about half of 
whom are boys, and about half of whom are 
girls. He enjoys many activities with his friends, 
especially practicing his guitar and singing. 
Michael’s favorite toys are his Karaoke Machine 
and his Legos. When he grows up, he would like 
to be a writer. 
Moderately Feminine
Michael is a 6-year old first grader. Michael 
follows directions well, but sometimes he can be 
shy. He has many friends, most of whom are 
girls, but some of whom are boys. He enjoys 
many activities with his friends, especially jump 
rope and doing gymnastics. Michael’s favorite 
1
SM MM N MF SF
Pr
e
Child Interests and Behavior Ranging from Strongly Masculine (SM) to Strongly 
Feminine (SF)
Significant interaction between child sex and child behavior, p < .001. SF-b = MF-b = SM-g > SM-b = 
MM-b = N-b = SF-g = MF-g.
2
3
4
5
C
hi
ld
ho
od
 In
te
rn
al
iz
in
g
Ratings of Internalizing in Childhood
Boys
Girls
     
a result. It may well be that either 
nonheterosexuality or gender 
nonconformity (or both) are at the 
core of social rejection (Hegarty, 
2009).
In this study we measured 
relationships between varying 
degrees of childhood gender 
nonconformity and predictions
    
children (whether boys or girls) would 
tend to engage in externalizing more 
than others in both childhood and 
adulthood. Conversely, they thought 
that feminine children would be more 
likely to experience internalizing 
symptoms, but also that SF boys 
would be most likely to have 
problems of internalization as adults.
toys are his toy store and his toy kitchen. When 
he grows up, he would like to be an elementary 
school teacher.
Strongly Feminine
Michael is a 6-year-old first grader. Michael is 
very affectionate, but he tends to be emotional. 
He has many friends, all of whom are girls. He 
enjoys many activities with his friends, 
especially practicing cheerleading and playing 
hop scotch. Michael’s favorite toys are his baby 
doll and his dollhouse. When he grows up, he 
would like to be a nurse. 
Measures Measures included
1
SM MM N MF SF
Child Interests and Behavior Ranging from Strongly Masculine (SM) to Strongly 
Feminine (SF)
Main effects of child interests ( p < .001) and the 3-way interaction (p = .007) were significant. SF > 
MF > all others.  Three-way post-hocs: Men rated MF boys (M
2
3
4
5
C
hi
ld
ho
od
 E
xt
er
na
liz
in
g
Ratings of Externalizing in Childhood
Boys
Girls
   
about 1) the continuation of such 
behavior in adulthood; 2) pressure 
to change; 3) internalizing and 
externalizing in childhood and 
adulthood; and 4) predictions 
about sexuality as measured by 
attraction, behavior, and 
orientation.
Childhood gender nonconformity was 
thought predictive of adult sexual 
orientation. This was a linear 
relationship for both sexes, but 
exaggerated for boys.
Poster presented at the Gender 
Development Research Conference, 
San Francisco, April 19th – 20th, 2012.
.   
demographics, and ratings of 
masculinity-femininity, pressure to 
change, adjustment in terms of 
internalizing and externalizing, 
and predicted sexual orientation.
1
SM MM N MF SF
Child Interests and Behavior Ranging from Strongly Masculine (SM) to Strongly 
Feminine (SF)
Main effect of child interests, p < .001. SM > MM > all others; N > MF.
Predictions about adult 
internalizing and externalizing 
were similar, although SF boys 
were thought the most likely to 
internalize as adults.


Expected correlates and outcomes of childhood gender nonconformity

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Expected correlates and outcomes of childhood gender nonconformity

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