This paper revisits the writings of the philosopher of science, Paul Feyerabend, in order to argue for pluralism in economics education. In particular, the benefits of pluralism, the role of science and the notion of scientific rationality are examined from the perspective of economics.Feyerabend, Economics teaching, Pluralism

Thomas, Alex M

English

Research Papers in Economics

Economists, Listen to Feyerabend
Economics, like other social sciences have borrowed a lot from the natural sciences. The most 
obvious is the nomenclature of our discipline – economics like physics. Economics has also 
built up quite a reputation which is evident in the space devoted to discussion of economic 
topics in mainstream newspapers, news magazines, and so on. Economists are taken seriously, 
especially for the purpose of creating a better world (here, economy) through various 'economic' 
interventions. 
Economics has given birth to a lot of sub-specializations- institutional economics, agricultural 
economics, microeconomics, macroeconomics, financial economics, industrial economics and 
so on and so forth. This paper, however, is not concerned with such sub-divisions. The 
discipline of economics can be classified as per the methods used for analysis and the 
importance ascribed to certain concepts. For instance, neoclassical economics largely deals with 
‘equilibrium’; whereas, Keynesian economics is concerned with disequilibrium states. Apart 
from these two paradigms, we have classical political economy, Marxian economics and 
Austrian economics. The dominant paradigm is that of the neoclassical economics- which 
presents itself in undergraduate and graduate textbooks as well as in their syllabi, journals 
having high impact factors, well funded economic associations, etc.
This paper criticises the dominant paradigm in its immense ability in minimizing the theoretical 
and pragmatic relevance of heterodox theories. Also, through Feyerabend, the paper calls for 
theoretical pluralism, especially in the domain of ‘economics teaching’. In the philosophy of 
science literature, Feyerabend’s views have been termed as anarchist, i.e., anything goes. From 
the philosophers of economics, only McCloskey (1994) seems to ascribe importance to the 
1views of Feyerabend. This paper attempts to bring to the fore the extreme relevance of 
Feyerabend’s theses in the domain of economics in general and economics teaching in 
particular.
The Benefits of a Pluralistic Theory for Economics
As mentioned earlier, the teaching of economics is primarily dominated by neoclassical 
economics. For instance, the paper ‘Theories of Economic Growth’ often begin with a 
discussion of Harrod-Domar and then move on to ‘new’ growth theories of Romer, Arrow and 
others. There is scarcely any mention of the wonderful insights provided by Marx, Smith, 
Hayek, Ricardo or Malthus. Why is this so? Or, ‘Theories of International Trade’ render Smith 
and Ricardo’s views as classical/old/useless. Such mis-classification is visible in almost all 
‘papers’ in economics. This is normal science. Feyerabend criticised science because it inhibited 
freedom of thought. [Feyerabend 1999a]. Right now, economics is doing the same thing.
By reading Feyerabend, we get some glimpses of how science (in our case, economics) is 
actually practised. “The way to knowledge and to the conquest of nature consists in increasingly 
restricting the range of possible ideas until a close fit is established between behaviour and 
thinking, on the one side, and 'reality', on the other. The aim is reached as soon as a single point 
of view is established beyond doubt as the one correct picture of the world.” [Feyerabend 
1999a, p 104] In economics, heterodox theories are hardly mentioned in popular economics 
textbooks. Even if they are mentioned, they figure under the labels of controversy, exceptions, 
limitations, etc. An illustration of this tendency follows. In newspapers, we come across 
statements such as 'RBI hikes CRR by 25 basis points to tackle inflation' and 'Fiscal deficit 
needs to be reduced to avoid crowding-out'. However, as economists, we know that this is only 
'one' view of the reality. And, not surprisingly, this 'view' of reality corresponds to the reality of 
2neoclassical economics. 
One of the most significant drawbacks of practising economics this way is that, wrongs of the 
theory are often eliminated by creating ad-hoc assumptions. In traditional neoclassical models, 
the concept of rationality which was used was that of unbounded rationality. This method of 
theorising   falls   under   what   is   known   as   methodological   individualism.   Other   theories 
questioned this view of an individual as an efficient rational utility maximizer. The response of 
neoclassical economics has not been to do away with 'the' concept of rationality. On the other 
hand, various kinds of rationality have been created – bounded rationality, principle of 
satisficing, reciprocity principle, etc
1. We can visualise 'capital controversies' in a similar light. 
This   controversy   took   place   between   Cambridge,   England   and   Cambridge,   MIT.   Joan 
Robinson, Piero Sraffa, Luigi Pasinetti and others from England demonstrated that the 
neoclassical conception of 'capital' poses logical problems from their marginal productivity 
theory and therefore destructs the beauty (uniqueness and stability) of the neoclassical general 
equilibrium theory. From the other camp, Paul Samuelson and Robert Solow sort of concluded 
that despite the assumptions, the neoclassical 'parable' does tell us some stories about reality. 
Although, this  controversy  hardly  finds  mention  in  most  microeconomics  and   well  as 
macroeconomics textbooks. For, “the faults of the apparently most perfect theory can often be 
discovered only with the help of alternatives that, while retaining and explaining its success, 
also explain why it must nevertheless be abandoned.” [Feyerabend 1999a, p 106] 
In the past twenty years or so, neoclassical economics has given birth to a lot of sub-
specialization as was mentioned earlier.  However, all these so called advancements utilise 
neoclassical   tools   and   procedures   by   incorporating   various   degrees   of   'improvements'. 
1 It must be pointed out that, depending on the school of thought the economist is from, these 'ad-hoc adjustments' 
could also be seen as improvements.
3Likewise, teaching of economics is also carried out in a similar fashion. These so-called 
improvements and sub-specializations take up names such as new keynesian economics, new 
political economy, neuroeconomics, new institutional economics, etc. All these nomenclatures 
utilise names of heterodox theories in a neoclassical way just by adding the prefix of 'new'. As 
Feyerabend writes, “instead of admitting that their ingenuity has given out and that they are no 
longer able to advance knowledge, scientists are usually in the habit of saying that they have 
finally arrived at the truth.” [Feyerabend 1999a, p 107] However, the developments in 
economics is certainly ingenious, but not something to be appreciated.
Such teaching of economics is particularly harmful for those in the developing countries, as 
most of these economic theories were constructed for understanding the western world. The 
peculiarities or characteristics of developing nations need to be carefully incorporated, if at all it 
is possible. Apart from this, teaching one single paradigm to students is particularly harmful. As 
most theories seem to depict Indian economy to be problematic; informal sector in India or 
black money is considered to create hurdles for conventional economic theory. The question is: 
do we adjust reality so that it conforms to 'theory'? And such rigid teaching of economics 
creates a situation where “there is not a single avenue left open to those who might want to 
think along different lines. Even dreams conform to the basic pattern. The restriction of the 
individual is complete.” [Feyerabend 1999a, p 105]
Therefore, it is or utmost importance that the teaching of economics is so restructured in a way 
that it includes as many heterodox theories as possible. This also provides the student more 
avenues of thought – which might aid in understanding and explaining the Indian reality in a 
better manner.
4Economics and/vs. Science
In this section, some of the issues pertaining to the use of science or scientific methods in 
economics are discussed. In addition, we ask whether economics requires the services of the 
method of science. In is this context that Feyerabend assumes importance. Feyerabend is 
primarily famous (although, this is an incomplete understanding of him) for his work Against 
Method, wherein, through exhibiting examples from the history of science, he argues that 
science does not have a single method. He also posited that major discoveries were made by 
those who went against a particular method.
As   we   have   already   seen,   the   transformation   from   'political   economy'   to   'economics' 
encompasses the belief in the 'truth' of science and its method. Apart from this, economics now 
employs enormous mathematical artillery in order to analyse and interpret the economy. 
Advances in economics also connote 'improvements' in the methods of analysis – econometrics, 
game theory, calculus, linear programming, etc and so on. All these methods have been 
borrowed from the sciences. This per se is not harmful and is not a cause for concern. However, 
when such methods are applied without an adequate understanding of their assumptions and 
limitations, it poses serious problems. Feyerabend aptly captures the essence of the problem 
when he writes “I want to defend society and inhabitants from all ideologies, science included. 
All ideologies must be seen in perspective. One must not take them too seriously. One must 
read them like fairytales which have lots of interesting things to say but which also contain 
wicked lies, or like ethical prescriptions which may be useful rules of thumb but which are 
deadly when followed to the letter.” [Feyerabend  1999b, p 181] Hence, economists ought to be 
doubly cautious when borrowing tools from science. 
In fact, the borrowing of concepts has proved to be more problematic. Economists frequently 
5use terms such as equilibrium, oscillation, cycles, tendencies, etc which have been shown to be 
inadequate. The greatest attack on 'equilibrium economics' was orchestrated by none other than 
Keynes
2  himself. Again, some of the giants in economics are those who went against the 
dominant/prevailing   method   –   Marx,   Keynes   and   Sraffa
3-   whose   works   redefined   the 
understanding of economics itself. To quote Feyerabend again: “Ideologies are marvellous 
when used in the company of other ideologies. They become boring and doctrinaire as soon as 
their merits lead to the removal of their opponents. The most important change, however, will 
have to occur in the field of  education.” [Feyerabend 1999b, p 188] Often, the dominant 
paradigm successfully relegates its opponents to exceptions or controversies through extensive 
use of footnotes. To reiterate, this procedure should never be followed in the teaching of 
economics. Using popular textbooks published in the US, especially impart only neoclassical 
economics and heterodox theories as appropriated by neoclassical economics. 
To wind up this section, it is therefore “of paramount importance to strengthen the minds of the 
young and 'strengthening the minds of the young' means strengthening them against any easy 
acceptance of comprehensive views. What we need here is an education that makes people 
contrary, counter-suggestive without  making them incapable of devoting themselves to the 
elaboration of any single view.” [Feyerabend 1999b, p 188]
Economics and Scientific Rationality
Science is rational implies that it is based on 'reason'. This 'reasonableness' of science aids in 
making 'sense' of the natural world around us. This characteristic of science is considered to be 
the reason for its success. Also, this provides credibility to the entire enterprise of science. In a 
similar vein, economics is becoming more rational. This statement is based on the increasing 
2 In his General Theory he showed how disequilibrium is the order of the day along with persistent unemployment.
3 Compared to Marx and Keynes, Sraffa has not made much of an impact on conventional economic theory. This is 
possibly because of his extreme theoretical position. In fact, Marxian economics also suffers in a similar way. 
6acceptance gained by economics and economists in the public domain. But, this progress of 
economics (Feyerabend talked about science) is “because the show has been rigged in its favour 
and not because of any inherent excellence either of its methods or of its results.” [Feyerabend 
1999c, p 206] This deserves more attention as institutions play a very important role in the 
promotion of economic development.
4
However, as Feyerabend has noted, rationality makes behaviour more uniform and makes 
dealing with surprises difficult. [Feyerabend 1999c] This problem is related to the need for 
having a pluralistic theory in economics. The presence of different theories aid the social 
scientist in thinking about various kinds of mechanisms/processes that might be operational in 
an economy. However, teaching a single paradigm constrains the economics novice in thinking 
about practical economic problems around him/her. 
Understanding what rationality means is necessary for making sense of the 'anarchist' position 
taken up by Feyerabend.   For him, there are many kinds of rationality. And, theoretical 
pluralism is considered to aid in exploring different kinds of rationality. This in turn 
democratises the academic endeavour. As McCloskey clarifies  “it means that scientists
have   to   check   all   the   ingredients   of   their   trade   and   not   only   those
which   philosophers   and   established   scientists   regard   as
characteristically scientific." [McCloskey 1994, p 392]
To conclude, to impart better education, pluralistic theories is essential in economics. This will 
also aid in the formulation of better economic policies in accordance with regional and 
historical specificties. In fact, neoclassical teaching of economics relegates heterodox theories 
as 'history of economic thought', which is considered inessential in the training of good 
4 See Mary M Shirley (2008) for an 'institutional' perspective on the role of scholars on economic development.
7economist. Also, borrowing from science should only undertaken with a proper understanding 
of their applicability (and limitations). Teaching of economics is supposed to empower the 
student to see various possibilities of understanding a social phenomenon. It is this diversity 
that 'educates' the student. Let me end by quoting Feyerabend: “The questions 'What shall we 
do? How shall we proceed? What rules shall we adopt? What standards are there to guide us?' 
however, are answered by saying: 'You are grown up now, children, and so you have to find 
your own way.'” [Feyerabend 1999c, p 211]
8

Economists, listen to Feyerabend

Abstract

Similar works

Full text

Available Versions

Research Papers in Economics